Europe became the most economically developed region in the world after 1900 AD，And before，China’s development is far ahead。What happened in the 900 years from 1000 to 1900 AD？Recently，Northwestern University economic historian Joe Mokyr was invited to share his upcoming book "Two Paths to the Twentieth Century: Europe and America" ​​co-authored with other scholars at Harvard University. Two Paths to the Twentieth Century: Culture and Institutions in Europe and China, 1000-2000），Detailed comparison of the different development paths of different bet365 kentucky bonus code organizations in the Middle Ages。Mokyr’s books have won many important awards，Includes Schumpeter Prize、Lankey Prize for Best Book on European Economic History、American Political Science Association Donald Price Award、bet365 kentucky bonus code Science History Society Alan Salin Award。

　Different organizational bet365 kentucky bonus code models

Mokyr said in an interview with bet365 kentucky bonus code reporter，“Other scholars have focused on many factors，Such as geography and politics，And we think geography and politics do play a role，But they are through families、It operates through the social organizational mechanism between clans and enterprises。bet365 kentucky bonus code is a very novel point of view。It is these unit organizations that establish the connection between what we see and higher-level events，bet365 kentucky bonus code is the way the world works。Our research methods are closely related to history。If we look back on the past，You will discover many phenomena that cannot be seen today。If you only study the world today，And ignore the past，Like a biologist who only focuses on existing species and ignores extinct species，You will miss 99.9% of information，Because almost every species that ever existed has become extinct。The same is true for history，Nearly all important events and things that interest us happened in the past，They no longer exist。If we don’t study these，We would miss out on the richness of human history”。

Social organizations are sometimes completely separate from the state，But they are institutions that coordinate and organize the production and delivery of local public goods and club goods。These social organizations include local public clubs，They are vital to social status and daily life。Because for places far away from the capital，They need to resolve conflicts through local cooperation、Defense、Education、Water conservancy and other issues。bet365 kentucky bonus code kind of place-based cooperation is important for economic development。In bet365 kentucky bonus code dimension of social organization，A huge divergence occurred sometime after 1000 AD，In other words，After 1000 AD，China is going in a different direction。China tends to build a family-based society。And in Europe，Just the opposite，The extended family is gradually losing its primary role at the heart of social organization。Mokyr thinks，Different development trends，What could explain bet365 kentucky bonus code huge reversal。

Mokyr explained，The clan already existed，Mainly among the elite，But it gradually became popular。The development of a clan begins with sacrifice，Sacrifice is a big event，Bringing descendants of an ancestor together through such activities。As time goes by，These clans assume more and more responsibilities，Including cooperation and negotiation with court officials, etc.，In other words, as they take on more and more responsibilities，Gradually becoming a stable and important social organization。Mokyr talks about，Migration is an important driving force for clan formation。When many people move to a new place，You need to organize cooperative units，They may rely more on family connections。In the Song Dynasty，China has experienced large-scale population migration，People move from the north to the south。Mokyr observed，The clan is more prominent in southern China，The South has become the center of population，Although there are clans in the north，But not so obvious at first。bet365 kentucky bonus code governance structure is closely related to New Confucian principles，The two complement each other。

At the same period, Europe began to develop in another direction，The extended family is gradually losing its primary role at the heart of social organization，On the contrary, there is an increasing tendency to establish nuclear families，bet365 kentucky bonus code is called the “European Marriage Model”。These families form new family structures through the establishment of marriage，Do not live with the parents of the bride and groom。Nuclear families are prevalent and maintain a monogamous pattern，Almost no divorce。Some people think，Compared to other societies，The European marriage model gives women more equal rights。But the dilemma faced by these nuclear families is that the local family unit is too small，Unable to provide public and club items，So social organizations are needed to overcome collective action problems，So that people can make credible commitments and cooperate with others。

Mokyr also mentioned regional issues。Businesses in Europe are almost always tied to geography。A guild is an organization that exists in a specific town，Everything is about land and location。And in China，Although regional realities do exist，But actually，Especially during migration，The family has expanded to different regions and remains in touch，At the same time in a specific area，You may see many families running their own businesses。bet365 kentucky bonus code is relatively rare in Europe。If you live in a city，You will see a carpenters guild and a tailors guild etc.，But you won’t see competition，Unless they are in different towns。It is precisely because of the importance of region，Parliaments appeared in Europe，Almost every ruler relies on these representative assemblies，Consult with them、Consultation、Discussing tax and other matters。In comparison，In China，The importance of geography is gradually diminishing，And the importance of ancestors is increasing day by day。

If the clan became the main social organization after the Song Dynasty，And in Europe，Developed a company。The clan has a common ancestor，But the company members are not related，What they share is not an ancestor，But a common goal。These are voluntary interest groups based on self-management，Permanent，Not dependent on any specific individual。They usually have strong self-regulatory traits，Leaders are responsible for their actions。At the same time，Guilds and companies are not exclusive，The clan is exclusive。bet365 kentucky bonus code kind of relationship between non-relatives，And the universal cultural values ​​endowed by these relationships，Have a decisive influence on subsequent political and economic results。Therefore，bet365 kentucky bonus code is basically a local operation，But it had global consequences。

　　Nuclear bet365 kentucky bonus code culture promotes individualism

European social hierarchy is often based on contractual reciprocity，Exhibits a strong tendency towards universalism。In Europe，People are more likely to trust strangers who have a certain relationship with them，Although bet365 kentucky bonus code does not mean that they will trust strangers more than their brothers and sisters，But in a way，The trust gap is much smaller。Questions about individualism，Proposed by British philosopher Stephen Douglas，Individualism is an intrinsic feature of Christianity，Emphasis on personal responsibilities and rights。bet365 kentucky bonus code goes hand in hand with the rise of the nuclear family and more general values。Mokyr thinks，In Chinese society, more emphasis is placed on collective responsibility and respect for elders。bet365 kentucky bonus code close family connection is also reflected in education and social status。For example，When a child in the family succeeds in the imperial examination，The whole family will benefit，bet365 kentucky bonus code phenomenon is very common in Chinese society。

Nuclear family culture promotes individualism、Scepticism and openness to new ideas，bet365 kentucky bonus code does reflect the uniqueness of European society。Anyway，Europe and China in Culture、There are significant differences in values ​​and social structures，These differences profoundly affect their respective social dynamics and personal behaviors。

“bet365 kentucky bonus code” inhibits innovation

Mokyr also talked about the impact of knowledge dissemination on innovation at that time。One of them is "Knowledge Ancestor Worship"。He said: "bet365 kentucky bonus code is a question I have been thinking about for a long time。”Basically，Some degree of reverence for early wisdom texts exists in most societies，And in Europe，Such reverence often inhibits innovation。People’s respect for previous literature inhibits innovation to some extent，Because when someone asks a question，Usually not conducting experiments or collecting data，Instead: “Let’s look up the writings of Aristotle or Galileo，Look what they say。”bet365 kentucky bonus code results in a limited pace of innovation。

Now the interesting and crucial point is，The "knowledge ancestor worship" in Europe began to weaken at some point，Mokyr believes it dates back to the mid-15th century。In the 16th and 17th centuries，bet365 kentucky bonus code phenomenon has become particularly significant，Because the rediscovery of the Greek classics became an important force during the Renaissance。Some documents already exist，But many classic works were reintroduced through translations from Constantinople。In addition，Europeans also began to contact Aristotle、Works by Claudius and others。At first，European scholars marveled at these works，Thought they were excellent，But as time goes by，They gradually realized that some of the content in the work was wrong。To the 17th century，Europe has experienced a fierce debate on the "Ancient vs. Modern War"，The debate in France、Extended widely in the Netherlands and England。To 1700，bet365 kentucky bonus code debate is basically over，Modernism wins。

bet365 kentucky bonus code phenomenon is driven by multiple factors，Especially the sailing expeditions of the 16th and 17th centuries。After all，Aristotle once claimed that crossing the equator was impossible，Because the high temperature there will kill many people，Ships can also catch fire，The facts prove that bet365 kentucky bonus code view is wrong。The ancient Greeks believed that all stars were fixed，No new stars will appear，But with the emergence of phenomena such as "supernova"，Scientists are beginning to question those ancient claims。At the beginning of the 17th century，Men like Francis Bacon and Gilbert began to show disdain for the Greek classics。

Mokyr also talked about the role of the “Republic of Letters”, an intellectual community。bet365 kentucky bonus code "republic of literati" is actually a collection of literati、Philosopher、A network of scientists and mathematicians，They keep in touch through letters or reading each other's books。They rarely communicate face to face，But we can still exchange ideas、Discover and review each other’s work。They create a community，Built a reputation，bet365 kentucky bonus code is very important，bet365 kentucky bonus code is due to the spread of the knowledge community。In bet365 kentucky bonus code way，People learn about Newton’s achievements，And the achievements of other similar scholars，Finally inspired science、Mathematics and other areas of natural philosophy，Even historical and theological developments。So，bet365 kentucky bonus code knowledge community can be regarded as a society to some extent。The first such social organization appeared in Italy in the early 17th century，The most famous of which is Accademia dei Lynce，Galileo is one of its members。In addition，There are many other similar societies in the UK，The Royal Society becomes a prominent example。To the 18th century，These societies have spread throughout Europe。The interesting thing about these societies is，They provide a formal gathering place，Enables creators and knowledge holders to interact。bet365 kentucky bonus code blend of ideas is critical to innovation，The most famous of them is the Lunar Society in Birmingham, England。

　The emergence of new skills helps bet365 kentucky bonus code develop rapidly

Mokyr also specifically talked about the issue of skills。Because the success of the Industrial Revolution required more than just inventing new things，Need to expand production、New maintenance skills。Actually，The scarcity of bet365 kentucky bonus code skill has become a factor restricting the development of many European countries。Now，There is a question，Are Europeans superior to other civilizations in terms of skills？In 1500，I don’t think so。If that’s true，I would be very surprised。After all，One of the reasons why Europeans went to Asia，It is they who desire products made by Chinese or Middle Eastern artisans，Such as silk and carpet。In the year 1500，The demand for Asian handicrafts in Europe is not significant。

By 1600，We are starting to see the first signs of a reversal。bet365 kentucky bonus code is a long process，In some areas，Europeans are indeed developing faster than other regions。But by the end of the 18th century，These gaps have narrowed。

Then，How these skills develop？Mokyr’s argument is that these skills are passed down primarily through the master-disciple relationship。Basically，The master-disciple relationship is one-on-one。“However，The contract between the master and the apprentice is a very incomplete contract in my opinion。The incompleteness is obvious，Because information is asymmetric，And it is not verifiable。bet365 kentucky bonus code is a non-repeated game，All possible problems that may arise in the contract can be reflected。The only thing that can save it is trust。”

Actually，A phenomenon similar to the skills market in the 17th century，Especially in Britain in the 18th century, it began to appear。Because guilds have become a limiting factor in many ways，When other European countries want to adopt new technologies，bet365 kentucky bonus code need to bring in new technicians from the UK。To 1850 to 1860，British craftsmen all over Europe，Even extending to Russia，bet365 kentucky bonus code established an empire there，Because locals can buy machines，But don’t know how to fix it、Maintain or install them，Local people need help from British technicians。

Mokyr finally proposed，The companies established in the Middle Ages indirectly and completely unintentionally laid the foundation for the development of a continent with more skills，And bet365 kentucky bonus code continent is the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution。“To explain why the modern world looks the way it does and to show its roots，Dating back hundreds of years，bet365 kentucky bonus code is not something that happened recently。We can go back to the Middle Ages to explore the reasons behind these phenomena，These things often happen as a result of accidents or unplanned events。bet365 kentucky bonus code is the law of unintended consequences: you do something，The result was completely unrelated things。We never expected it，Not for any purpose，But bet365 kentucky bonus code is the result。"Mokyr said，“I think bet365 kentucky bonus code is very fascinating，Because it reveals the contingency of history: not everything that happens is inevitable，Not everything that could happen has happened”。