Ancient China’s centralized administrative system founded in the Qin Dynasty，Complete in the Qing Dynasty。Under bet365 free bets，All administrative officials are appointed by the imperial court，Without bottom-up “local autonomy”。Therefore，Administrative regions at different levels have no independent status，Together with the "Court", they form a unified administrative system。In view of this，Through the operation of this unified administrative system at any level，You can all see through the "big history" - the important characteristics of the "Qin system" that has been implemented for more than two thousand years。

　　“Reasonability” is bet365 free bets superficial

Max Weber once summarized the components of the modern "rationalized" bet365 free bets system。These elements include governance through a hierarchical bureaucracy、Clear authority of bet365 free bets agencies、Implementing the “Job Hierarchy Principle” internally，bet365 free bets operations are "continuous、Subject to rules”，And “the bet365 free bets management team is completely separated from bet365 free bets materials and production materials” etc.。Such a modern bet365 free bets system、Bureaucracy，Only appeared in the West after the 15th century。There was no centralized state and bet365 free bets system in Europe in the Middle Ages，Even under "Hierarchical Monarchy" and "Absolute Monarchy"，The operation of the bet365 free bets system is also very disorderly，Far from reaching the level of “rationalization”。To this，Tocqueville recorded in the book "The Old Regime and the Great Revolution"，Although France at that time had officials all over the country，But their power comes from different sources，Not systematic，Various operating regulations。

However，China abolished feudalism as early as the Qin Dynasty more than 2,000 years ago、Xing County，Established a centralized political system，At the same time, an administrative system with "rationalization" characteristics has been formed，The basic content includes: appointing professional bureaucrats，Establishing a bureaucratic government agency，Various administrative operations have “regulations” and rules to follow。Compared with the chaotic administrative bureaucracy of European countries at that time，The 18th century Enlightenment thinker Voltaire enthusiastically affirmed and praised China’s political system。He praised: China’s administrative system is sound and reasonable，The six ministries and other agencies of the central government have both division of labor and cooperation，Conducive to improving administrative efficiency，Prevent officials from acting arbitrarily；Local officials have clear powers，Everyone performs his own duties，The administrative agencies across the country form a large network with no leakage，There are officials everywhere、Everything is taken care of by someone。Some scholars of later generations also believe that bet365 free bets, which can be called the "Qin system", reflects China's "prematurity" on the issue of "modernization"。

However，We discovered through observation of the actual operation of state and county administration in the Qing Dynasty，The "rationality" of the bet365 free bets system under the "Qin system" is to a large extent just superficial。Under this system，Although a seemingly bureaucratic organization has been established，However, its officials are not civil servants in the modern sense，It is a patriarchal group with personal dependence on each other；Although various specific and even cumbersome rules and regulations have been formulated，But what bet365 free bets operations really follow are various "illegal and legal" "hidden rules"。

　　Reflecting bet365 free bets "traditional" governance

Max Weber pointed out: "Contractual appointment is free choice，It is the essence of modern bureaucracy。”bet365 free bets personnel in this system only rely on the law、System and subordinate to abstract superior position，Rather than being attached to any specific natural person (including superiors)。In addition to their personal rights and interests according to the law，No other group interests；They serve public power as independent individuals during their term of office，Instead of forming a group to permanently occupy public power。But "traditional" rule is different，The people on his bet365 free bets team are not free agents，They may be "according to tradition，Through the bond of submission，Recruit people with connections to the ruler”，Or some people who have a "personal trust relationship", "loyal alliance relationship" or "deferential relationship" with the ruler。Prefecture and county officials in the Qing Dynasty、Friends behind the scenes、Long Follow、bet365 free bets staff consisting of housekeepers and servants，His identity reflects the characteristics of this "traditional" rule。

The relationship between state and county officials and superiors at all levels in the Qing Dynasty was a master-slave relationship。They visit the governor、FU、Fan、謬、道、Prefectural and other superior officials，Everyone must kneel down and worship，“Serve your master like a slave”，And superiors at all levels also treat them as slaves，Arrogant，Any control，"Road Post Office，A place for everyone to watch，Listen to him and march on his knees，Standing still；Even servants of high officials，Also scolded him harshly"。This is very emotional、Etiquette that embarrasses the person doing the salute，Deliberately highlight the humiliation of the person giving the salute and the dignity of the person receiving the gift，Its functions go far beyond the need to reflect the bet365 free bets roles of both parties，Aims to deliberately strengthen the master-slave relationship between both parties。

In the Qing Dynasty, state and county officials hired secret friends to "help with writing work"，Manager’s letter”，Accepting litigation、Collection of taxes, etc.，Daizhou County magistrates exercise their powers。However，My friend is not a formal administrator of the country，They are privately hired by state and county officials，The museum funds are paid by individuals in the state and county。This way，All activities of curtain friends are not responsible for the law or bet365 free bets，Responsible to the chief officer。One of their basic quality requirements and responsibilities is to be able to "save their career as chief officials"，Help the chief officer “cater up with the will”，It’s better to ask for a meeting than your boss”，And cover up the mistake，Avoiding sanctions。

The chief attendants and servants of state and county officials in the Qing Dynasty were responsible for sending and receiving、Transfer bet365 free bets documents，Manage warehouse、Prison、Inn，And participate in the litigation trial。As the name suggests，They are completely the private property of state and county officials，By Guan Qin (official’s father、子、Nephew、Nephew、Sister-in-law, etc.)、Domestic servants and bosses、Colleagues、Composed of recommenders entrusted by relatives and friends。

The Fang Ke (commonly known as "Liu Fang") in prefectures and counties in the Qing Dynasty was responsible for undertaking copywriting，Participate in tax collection、Penalty litigation and other matters。House officials are recruited by the government，Most of them are "idle and unemployed poor people" and "rogue people"，Not a formal bet365 free bets member of the state，No industrial silver，“Only relying on bad rules to make a living”。As per regulations，House servants should retire after five years of service，But they can give and receive this vacancy privately、Rent、Buy and sell，“From father to son，Senior to grandson”。

The servants in prefectures and counties in the Qing Dynasty were positioned as "mean servants"，His descendants are "not allowed to enter official positions and take the examination"。Their personal rights are not protected by law，If a state or county official punishes a servant to death for official duties，Not legally responsible，Only subject to bet365 free bets sanctions；Those who cannot be caught by the police as per the limit，Prefecture and county magistrates "should be punished at the least"，The most important thing is to question his wife”，"Imprisonment" for his family；Sometimes the guards escort the prisoners through places and after arriving in the province，Even sent to prison together with other prisoners，"I will definitely give you a lot of money，Before it can be released”。

　　The bet365 free bets is in disarray

State and county administration in the Qing Dynasty，On the surface, various customizations must be followed，Seems to be very legal。But actually，Various written systems often have only their names，What really dominates the bet365 free bets operations of states and counties are various unwritten “bad rules”。Here we only take the state and county finance in the Qing Dynasty as an example to illustrate this situation。

On the surface, state and county finance in the Qing Dynasty had a public nature，In fact, it is under the private control of state bet365 free bets；On the surface, the country has strict customization，In fact, it operates according to various unspoken rules，Sometimes there are no rules at all。

According to the clearing bet365 free bets，Tian Fu、Miscellaneous taxes and land rent are collected by state and county organizations，But all of them belong to the national fiscal revenue，Specified by the Ministry of Household Affairs、Unified tax items、Centralized management of tax amounts and exemption policies。In order to avoid the difficulty of pulling up and down，The Qing government implemented the state and county retention bet365 free bets along the Chengming bet365 free bets，That is, the state and county officials will use the national fiscal revenue handled by them to support the office expenses of the state, county and the region where they are located (including official salaries、Food and sacrifices、Inn、Funds for imperial examinations, etc.)。However，Because the remaining prefectures and counties are far from enough for office use，There are various "extra-legal expenditures" that are necessary but cannot be reimbursed in all states and counties。Mainly include the following categories: friends of state and county officials、Salary of long-term attendants，Apportionment by superiors at all levels，Contribution to the predecessor’s financial and food shortages and extraordinary expenses，Obscene gifts and personal entertainment for superior officials，Emperor Chai、Official official、Military missions and other various errand expenses，And various other office expenses not within the scope of deposits，etc.。These extra-legal expenditures are huge，The Qing government has always refused to provide legal financial sources for it，Just acknowledging that state and county officials violate customs and seize various extra-legal income，Including land tax and floating income、Miscellaneous tax concealment、Corvee and various bad rules。

Various data indicate，Legal deposits of silver in various prefectures and counties in the Qing Dynasty，Only one thousand to several thousand taels per year，Various extra-legal expenditures often amount to tens of thousands or even tens of thousands of taels，The gap is all filled by extra-legal income。So，Extra-legal revenue and expenditure have become the main body of state and county finances。In terms of management bet365 free bets，The state and county finance in the Qing Dynasty was actually a "family property bet365 free bets" with "big contracts"。To be specific，Prefecture and county retention and extrajudicial collection、Apportionment、Bad rules，All belong to the personal control of the county magistrate。Meanwhile，All legal expenditures and various extra-legal expenditures，The state and county officials are also personally responsible for all expenses；Remainder of income and expenses，Personally owned by Guizhou County Official。This way，The "finance" of a public nature has almost become the private revenue and expenditure activities of officials。

In summary，"Qin bet365 free bets" in terms of various institutional designs，Has the legal characteristics of a modern political bet365 free bets，But its actual operation is not like this。This is an important issue related to our correct grasp of the reality of ancient China’s political bet365 free bets。The operation of state and county administration in the Qing Dynasty provides us with a favorable window to glimpse this reality。

(The author is a professor at the School of bet365 free bets, Capital Normal University、Director of Beijing Historical Society)