The central centralized administrative system built in Qin in ancient China，To the Qing Dynasty, it is complete。Under this administrative system，All administrative officials are appointed by the court，"Local Autonomy" that has not been recommended from bottom to top。So，There are no independent status at various levels of political districts at different levels，Together with the "court" constitutes a unified administrative system。For this，The operation of any level through this unified administrative system，All "big history" can be seen -the important features of the "Qin system" of more than 2,000 years。

　　bet365 live casino games

Max Weber has been summarized by the composition of the administrative system of modern "rationalization"。These elements include governance through the bureaucratic system、The authority of the administrative agency is clear、Implement "Job Level Principles" internally，Administrative operation is "continuous、The rules are constrained "，and "The administrative management team is completely separated from administrative management materials and production materials" and so on。Such a modern administrative system、bureaucratic system，Only after the 15th century in the West。Europe does not exist in the country and administrative system that does not exist in the Middle Ages，Even under the "level monarch system" and "absolute monarch system"，The operation of the administrative system is also very disorder，It is far from reaching "rationalization" level。For this，Tocoke described in the book "Old System and the Great Revolution"，French officials at that time were all over the bet365 best casino games country，But their power sources are different，No system，There are a variety of operating rules。

But，China, as early as 2,000 years ago, the Qin Dynasty was discarded、Xing County，Established a centralized political system，At the same time，Its basic content includes: appointment of professional bureaucrats，Establish a tender -level government agency，All kinds of administrative operations have the rules of "Dianzhang" to follow。Comparison of chaos with the then European country's administrative bureaucratic system at that time，18th -century Enlightenment thinker Voltaire given enthusiastically and praise for China's political system。He praised: China's administrative system is sound and reasonable，Six Ministry of the Central Government and other institutions have both division of labor and cooperation，It is conducive to improving administrative efficiency，Prevent officials from arbitrariness; local officials have clear authority，Each department's duties，The national administrative agency forms a large and uninteresting large net，officials everywhere、Someone controls everything。Later scholars also believe that this administrative system that can be called the "Qin system" reflects China's "precocious" on the issue of "modernization"。

But，We found that we were found through observation of the actual administrative operation of the Qing Dynasty and county.，The "rationality" of the administrative system under the "Qin System" is largely just as a table。Under this system，Although the institution that seems to have a scientific nature has been established，However, its officials are not civil servants of modern meaning，Instead, a ancestral group with private dependent relationships with each other; although a variety of specific or even cumbersome chapters have been formulated，But the administrative operation really follows various "illegal and legal" "hidden rules"。

　　reflected the characteristics of "traditional type" rule

Max Weber pointed out: "The appointment of the contract is free to choose，Is the essence of a modern bureaucracy。"" In this system, administrative personnel are only in accordance with the law、The system is affiliated with abstract superiors，instead of relying on any specific natural person (including superior)。In addition to enjoying personal rights and interests in accordance with the law，No other group interest; they serve public power as an independent individual during the term of office，instead of forming a group permanently possess public power。But the "traditional" rule is different，The staff in its administrative team are not freelancers，They or "according to traditional，Through a smooth bond，Recruitment of people who have a relationship with the rulers "，or some people who have "personal trust relationships", "loyal alliance relationships" and "respectful relationships" with the rulers。The government of the county of the Qing Dynasty is by officials、Make Friends、Long Sui、Administrative personnel composed of house officials and different service，Its identity embodies the characteristics of this "traditional" rule。

The state and county officials of the Qing Dynasty and the boss at all levels are a kind of main slave relationship。They see the supervisor、Fu、Fan、臬、Tao、House and other higher officials，Gifts to kneel，"Slave servants to serve the owner"，And the boss at all levels "also" slavery "，Any control，Any control，"Road Post Pavilion，The place where the eyes wait and see，Listen to the knees of the court，It is not allowed; even the servant of the official，Also scolded hard "。This is very emotional、The etiquette of the rituals is extremely embarrassing，Driven the personality humiliation of the salute and the personality of the person who suffers，Its function far exceeds Bet365 lotto review the need to reflect the administrative role of both parties，It aims to deliberately strengthen the relationship between the main slave on both sides。

The official hires of the Qing Dynasty county officials "Xiangjiu Pen Ink，Manager Shu Qi "，In acceptance of word litigation、Taxation of taxes，Daizhou County officials exercise their powers。But，Muyou is not a formal administrative person in the country，They are privately applied by state officials and county officials，Its capital is paid by the person and county personal payment。This，All the activities of the Youyou are not responsible for the law or system，but is responsible for the master。One of their basic quality requirements and responsibilities is to be able to "keep the master's future"，Help the owner "cater to the intention，and cover up the negligence，and cover up the negligence，Avoid punishment。

Chang Sui and Jiading, the official of the county officials in the Qing Dynasty, is responsible for receiving and receiving、Administrative document，Management warehouse、Prison、Post Station，and participate in the litigation trial。As the name suggests，They are completely private from state and county officials，Affairs of the official (the father of the official、Son、nephew、nephew、婿, etc.)、Family slaves and boss、Colleagues、Entrusted by relatives and friends for composition。

Fangxualians (commonly known as "six rooms") in Qing Dynasty is responsible for undertaking copywriting，Participate in taxation for taxation、Punishment Litigation and other affairs。House officials are recruited by the government government，Most of them are "swimming and leisurely poverty", "Rogue"，Not a formal administrative person in the country，No Workers and Food Silver，"Only with bad rules to live with funding"。According to regulations，The house official should be retired after five years of service，bet365 live casino games But they can teach this absent privately、rental、Sale，"Father uses Chuanzi，Zi Chuan Sun "。

Division in the prefecture of the Qing Dynasty was positioned as "cheap service"，Its descendants "Not allowed to enter the official test"。Their personal rights can not get legal guarantee，State and county officials if they are killed due to the responsibility of the public service.，No legal liability，Only administrative sanctions are subject to administrative sanctions;，State and county officials "Light to blame，Initially Quality of his wife "，"Prisoner Leibabie"; sometimes the officer of the officer and the place where the person passed through and arrived after the province，Even enters the prison and closed with people，"It must give heavy capital，Can be released at first "。

　　The system is messy

State and County Administration in the Qing Dynasty，On the surface, you must follow all kinds of customization，It seems very legalized。But actually，The various systems of the text often have their names，The real leading state and county administrative operation is all kinds of unsatisfactory "bad rules"。Only the state and county finances of the Qing Dynasty here as an example to illustrate this situation。

The state and counties in the Qing Dynasty have public properties on the surface，In fact, it is dominated by the private person of the state and county officials;，In fact, it follows various hidden rules，Sometimes or even no rules。

According to clearing，Tian Fu、Miscellaneous taxes and land rent are levied by state and county organizations，But all belong to the national fiscal income，Establish specific by the Ministry of Households、Unified tax item、Tax and reduction policy centralized management。In order to avoid solving the difficulty of dialing and dialing，The Qing government implemented the state and county retention system along the Chengming system，That is, state and county officials are customized bet365 Play online games in the national fiscal revenue in the country where their national fiscal revenue is customized.、Eat and sacrifice、Post Station、imperial examinations and other funds)。But，Due to the presence of the state and the county, it is far from being able to apply the public，There are all kinds of "external expenditures" that must spend but cannot be reimbursed in the state and counties。It mainly includes the following categories: State and county curtain friends、Salary of personnel such as Chang Sui，Establishment at all levels，Donates of the predecessor of the money and food for the predecessor and the same dynamic support，Gift to the boss of the boss officials' bad rules and entertainment，Emperor Division、Official difference、Various deviation costs such as soldiers，and other various office expenses that are not within the scope of the deposit，etc.。The amount of out -of -law expenditure is huge，The Qing government has always refused to provide it with legal financial sources，Just the default state and county officials illegally captured various external income，Including Tianfu floating harvester、Miscellaneous Taxation Report、Poor 徭 and various bad rules。

Various information indicates，Legal deposit and silver in states and counties from all over the Qing Dynasty，There are only a hundred hundred to thousands of two every year，Various external expenditures often up to 10,000 thousand or even tens of thousands of two，The gap is filled by external income。So，French income and expenditure becomes the main body of the state and county finance。As far as the management system is concerned,，The state and counties in the Qing Dynasty are actually a "big -capacity" "family production system"。Specific words，State and county surviving and French floating harvester、Establishment、bad rules，All the official domination of officials of Guizhou County officials。At the bet365 best casino games same time，All legal expenditures and various external expenditures，It is also fully paid by the individual of the state and county officials;，Guizhou County official owned。This，"Finance", which is a public nature, has almost become the private revenue and expenditure activity of officials。

To sum up，"Qin System" in terms of various system design，The legalization characteristics of the modern political system，and its actual operation is not like this。This is an important question that involves the reality of the ancient Chinese political system.。The operation of the administrative operation of the prefecture of the Qing Dynasty provides us with a favorable window for this kind of reality。

(The author is a professor at the School of History of the Capital Normal University、Director of Beijing History Society)