In a sense，The study of deliberative bet365 promo codes has become “the most popular approach among democratic theorists of our time”。But in the view of contemporary American political theorist Russell Harding，Theorists tend to focus only on how deliberative bet365 promo codes “should work”，Rather than "how it is actually used in real society"。On some common justifications for deliberative bet365 promo codes，Hardin criticized。

 An “epistemic” defense of deliberative bet365 promo codes—deliberation helps discover truth，Hardin expressed doubts。

He pointed out，In political life，For bet365 promo codes "truth" to be discovered，There may be different understandings。What people want to discover，Perhaps a normative truth about “the best way to live” or “the best way to organize government”。However，Harding believes that there is no such "truth"。On questions of value and purpose，Maybe people will reach a consensus in the future，Perhaps most people will choose or support certain values ​​and purposes。But，bet365 promo codes is not something that is bound to happen。What’s more，What was found here，Not “truth” revealed by intellectual debate，It’s just people voting on their interests。What can be discovered through negotiation，Just how deeply we disagree on our goals。Some deliberative democrats seem to think，Conclusion reached through negotiation，Constitutes "the truth about legitimacy and justice"。But Hardin pointed out，Such a statement actually confuses "fact" and "value"，No clear distinction between "truth about means" and "truth about ends"。

A second understanding of the positive relationship that exists between negotiation and truth，The truth that can be discovered through negotiation，Limited to "objective" facts。This view is that，Negotiation may help us discover “causal” facts，Thus, on the premise that the goal has been determined，Better grasp of the means that will help achieve those goals。But Hardin pointed out，If the role of negotiation is understood as the discovery of means，Then，Negotiation that can achieve the best results，It should be a negotiation between experts in the relevant field。Whether it is the general public，Still an elected public official，In terms of professionalism, they cannot compare with experts。Obviously，There is a contradiction between this fact and various contemporary mainstream deliberative democratic theories。No matter deliberative democrats prefer deliberations with deep public participation，Still negotiations within public authorities such as legislative bodies，They generally regard consultation as a civil political activity，Thus incompatible with "technocracy"。Therefore，The negotiation they advocate seems to be different from pure "ends-means" reasoning，The significance of bet365 promo codes negotiation should not be to discover instrumental means。

This criticism of deliberative bet365 promo codes，A common argument for support is that voters have limited knowledge of political matters，It can even be said to be seriously inadequate。Hardin emphasized this point。He thinks，If we look at bet365 promo codes from the perspective of pragmatism rather than idealism，You must admit it，Results based on statistics，Voters’ political knowledge is extremely lacking。Even those citizens who actively care about and participate in politics，It is also easy to hold wrong views on some simple facts。This is not surprising。After all，In modern countries，It is impossible for citizens to participate in the governance of all issues。

In Harding’s opinion，People’s ignorance of political knowledge，Not only rational，And it is not against morality。The reason why bet365 promo codes ignorance is rational，This is because the impact of a single voter on the election results can be so small as to be negligible。Therefore，Citizens devote a lot of time and energy to studying political issues，The gain outweighs the loss。Of course，The premise of saying this is，The only motivation for citizens to care about politics is to influence the election results，And this is not inevitable，Ordinary citizens undoubtedly have other motives as well。But Harding thinks，Even if a citizen does not care about politics，Nor does it mean that he should be condemned。“In addition to delving into knowledge about politics and political possibilities，Most people can use their time to do more valuable things，Include things that are morally praiseworthy。”

Not only that，Even as we turn from individual citizens to governments，Political participation is not always desirable。In most cases，More likely to advance the interests of citizens，In fact, they are politicians and well-organized groups，Not citizens who happen to share the same interests and ideals as you。If we accept these views of Hardin，There seems to be reason to think，If the goal of consultation among ordinary citizens is to "find the most suitable means to achieve the established ends"，Then，bet365 promo codes goal is unrealistic，Or it is feasible but not necessary。

Harding cited Manning’s theory，Believe that traditional representative bet365 promo codes has recently been transformed into "audience bet365 promo codes"。An important phenomenon caused by this kind of audience bet365 promo codes is，“Socioeconomic status no longer determines voting patterns”。Voters no longer vote based on their judgment of a particular party or campaign platform，Rather, vote based on impressions of individual candidates (e.g. images seen on television)。With the development of audience bet365 promo codes，The topics of political discussions are often set by politicians，The voters merely watch and listen。A further consequence of this change is，The opposing political parties are no longer the defenders and representatives of the interests of specific voter groups。For example，Different parties are increasingly converging on economic policy views，The result is that some groups are abandoned，Other groups have good relations with all political parties。These changes are coupled with voters’ difficulties in accessing information，Make it difficult for them to participate in voting and negotiation based on interests。Therefore，Hardin reaches conclusion，The rise of the core concept of deliberative bet365 promo codes “comes too late for us”，Because "audience bet365 promo codes" has almost eliminated the applicability of deliberative bet365 promo codes。

Harding in his critique of deliberative democratic theory，Pointed out some of the difficulties bet365 promo codes faces，Especially remind people not to have overly optimistic and idealistic illusions。For that matter，His discussion has a certain positive significance。But，There are also some problems with his criticism。

First，For the two concepts of "participation" and "negotiation"，He did not make a clear enough distinction。This leads to the fact that many of his criticisms are actually more applicable to participatory bet365 promo codes，Not applicable to all forms of deliberative bet365 promo codes。This will undoubtedly greatly reduce the strength of its argument。And，The target of many of Harding's criticisms (most notably his analysis of the ignorant electorate)，Not so much a specific type of bet365 promo codes，It is better to say that it is the democratic system itself。So，His criticism fails to show the disadvantages of deliberative bet365 promo codes compared with other forms of bet365 promo codes，On the contrary, it indirectly proves the necessity of supplementing existing democratic practices with consultation。

Secondly，For the existing democratic systems and democratic practices in Western countries，Harding often appears to be too content with the status quo。This attitude is sometimes reflected in a negative form (for example, believing that it is too difficult for citizens to participate in negotiations)，Sometimes it is reflected in a positive form (such as the belief that citizens’ lack of political participation is reasonable，Even beneficial to government operations)。But he ignored the possibility of negotiations at a more grassroots level，Also ignores the shortcomings of low-participation bet365 promo codes exposed in reality，And develop citizen capabilities for deliberative bet365 promo codes、The role of promoting mutual understanding and safeguarding public interests is too pessimistic。Therefore，Although Hardin’s criticism pointed out some difficulties in the practice of deliberative bet365 promo codes，But it does not fundamentally eliminate the meaning and role of deliberative bet365 promo codes。

　　(Author’s affiliation: School of Philosophy, Nankai University)