My major is the history of Chinese economy，Especially the Jiangnan Economic History of Jiangnan in the Ming and Qing Dynasties。In the past people's minds，Jiangnan Economic History of the Ming and Qing Dynasties is the academic field of "local history" (or "regional history") in the "history of Chinese"，It seems that the relationship with Chinese and foreign relations has little relationship。but，Jiangnan has had economic exchanges with overseas for a long time，Especially in the Ming and Qing Dynasties，This is increasingly strengthened，Become aspects that cannot be ignored when studying Jiangnan's economic evolution。So，In recent decades，Economic relations between Jiangnan and overseas in the Ming and Qing Dynasties have become important areas of economic historians。In recent years，My research interest gradually turns to global history，In order to observe the changes in China's economic changes in the Ming and Qing Dynasties in the global history。The economic connection between China and the outside world is an important part of Sino -foreign relations，Therefore, I also pay special attention to the history of Chinese and foreign relations。but，I will never study the history of Chinese -foreign relations，can only from the perspective of an outsider，Put forward some immature views，Scholars who respect all scholars criticize。

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No human group can really be isolated from the world，Whether voluntary or forced，All contacts with other groups must be generated with other groups。Of course, China is no exception。In order to correct the long -term popular Chinese "retreat self -defense" theory，Jonathan Spence (Jonathan Spence) wrote in the preface of "Seeking Modern China": "After 1600，China's fate as a country，I intertwined with other countries，I have to search for rare resources with other countries，Exchange goods，Expand knowledge。"He only talked about the situation after 1600，So what about 1600 years? In the preface of "Valerie Hansen) in the book" Open Empire ": China before 1600" such an empire: it merged different regions and nations when it was formed，and maintain an openness of foreign influence in the long history，Not a central kingdom that refuses to exotic "。The "time" she mentioned starts from the Shang Dynasty。So，History of China's own text，It is a country that is closely related to the outside world。

but，Shi Jingqian and Han Sen were talking about "China"，All from the "China" from most people today，and this concept is based on the cognitive basis of modern nation -state。But，In human history，National State has only been new things that have only appeared in recent centuries。"State" before that，There is a very big difference from the current country。So，At that time, Bet365 app download The relationship between bet365 live casino games "country" and "country" was also very different from now。From this perspective，When talking about the "China" and "Foreign" relationship in the history of Sino -foreign relations，There are obvious differences in modern times and modern times。

The concept of "China" first appeared in the Western Zhou Dynasty。Spring and Autumn Period，"China" is relative to "Quartet" and "Four Yi"。Many different ethnic groups lived in the Central Plains region，State in the so -called "Huayi Misjuven"。By the Spring and Autumn Period，The recognition of the Huaxia ethnic group gradually enhances，Huaxia State State began to pay attention to Huayi，I believe that Huayi has its natural boundary，Not confused。Some vassal states expand their own territory through war，and proposed the slogan of "respect the king Yiyi"，The war with the surrounding ethnic group continues。These ethnic groups may be assimilated or expelled to the remote place，The region of Huayi is gradually clear。

After the Qin and Han dynasties，The surrounding ethnic groups still play a significant role in history。Sima Qian's history of the ethnic group with a close relationship with the Han Dynasty，Write as "Biography of the Huns", "South Vietnamese Biography", "East Vietnamese Biography", "Biography of North Korea", "Biography of Southwest" and "Biography of Da Wan"，Created the foundation for the passage of the Siyi Biography of the Siqi in the future。in Yuan、Qing two dynasties，Out of Trummating the ethnic group from Dongyi, which was called by the former Central Plains dynasty、Beidi's consideration，The revised history of the two dynasties did not write national history in accordance with the Siyi system，Instead, referring to part of the former ethnic group of the previous Siyi as "foreign"，This has begun to formally distinguish "foreign" and "China"。Especially the Qing Dynasty，In its clear boundaries，Both the provinces of the Central Plains in the Central Plains where the Han nationality lived，It also includes remote areas where people of all ethnic groups live。So，The "China" in the minds of the rulers of the Qing Dynasty is no longer the "China" in the previous narrow sense。The "Qing Dynasty Literature Test the Test of the Four Preamers" compiled during the Qianlong period，For Mongolia、Tibet、Back to the Ministry and so on, it is no longer called "Yi"，The range of the four descent，East is North Korea、Japan、Ryukyu; Nan is Annan、South Palm、Guangnan、Myanmar、Gourd、Siam、Port、Cambodia、Songzhi Rand、Johor、Yazi、Luzon、Mang Jun Da Lao、Sulu、Brunei、Ma Chen、Old Port、Manga Sa、Galaba、Yidalia、Bordarar、British Geely、Dry silk、Dutch、Ferlang machine、Rui State、Sneess country; west is east -west cloth、Anji Yan、Haohan、Namu dry、Margalang、Tashan、Badak Mountain、Bolore、Aihahan; north is Russia、Left and right Kazakh、Qiqi bet365 best casino games Yusi、谔 Ergen Qi。So，In history，"China" is a constant concept within the space。

Not only that，Before the rise of modern nation countries，As a country with a relatively modern significance，Only China in the world。Francis Fukuyama)，From the perspective of global and comparative history，The following elaborate on historical problems:

If you want to study the rise of the country，China is more concerned than Greece and Rome，Because only China has established a modern country defined by Max Weber。China has successfully developed a unified central bureaucratic government，Manage many population and vast territory，Especially compared to Europe in the Mediterranean。China has already invented a set of non -personal and capable bureaucratic recruitment systems，More systematic than the public administrative agency in Rome。1 year of AD，China's total population is comparable to the Roman Empire，and the proportion of China's population is under the jurisdiction of the unified rules，far exceeding Rome's。Rome has its own important heritage，Especially in the legal field。As a pioneer of modern responsible government，Greece and Rome are very important。But in the development of the country，China is more important ... The classic modern theory written by great men，Such as Karl Marx、Emile Durkheim、Henry Maine、Ferdinand Tonnies、Max Weber，tend to think that Western experience is a model of modernization，Because industrialization first occurred in the West ... The emergence of modern political institutions in history，far from the industrial revolution and modern capitalist economy。Modern national elements we understand now，China's industry in the 3rd century BC has been in place。Its emergence in Europe，Late 1800 years ... Classic Modernization Theory，tend to use the development of Europe as the standard，Only query why other society deviates from。I treat China as a model formed by the country，and query why other civilizations do not copy the Chinese road。

Visible，In world history formed by the country，China seems to be a special case，Most "countries" outside China do not have this modern meaning that China has。Not only that，Since the unity of Qin in China，Most of the periods have long -term stability and relatively stable territories。and countries in other regions are mostly rotating and declining，The territory is also fascinated，Bet365 app download The relationship between them and China also has a variety of and fluctuating fluctuations。So，Look at the "Chinese and foreign" relationships in history with today's eyes，It is undoubtedly a problem。

　　Trend the world as a area where interconnected

Since you can't use today's eyes to see the "Chinese and foreign" relationships in history，So，What vision do you want to see? I think，In this respect，The vision of global history may be very helpful。

Global History is a hot spot in international schools in recent years。According to the summary of Mr. Liu Xincheng，In the five basic positions Bet365 app download of global history，First，Abandon the traditional thinking mode of the country in the past world history research，Basic narrative units should be a network formed by a number of society that is related to each other; second，The overall trend of global development is only reflected in the three major processes that are truly universal in all society (that is, population growth、Progress and spread of technology、The growing exchanges between different society); third，In the above three major processes，The most important thing is the increasingly close communication between different society。

Starting from these positions，I think the study of Chinese and foreign relations can consider the following practices。

First，Dilvert the division of "China" and "Outside" with the background of modern nation countries，The areas under the effective governance of the central dynasties in Chinese history as "China"，and the other areas as "outside"，Both "China" and "Outside" are used as some areas of different sizes。"China" in the territory、Population、Economic volume and other aspects in modern world history are rare，and in all areas of "China" in natural conditions、The level of economic development and the connection with the "China" are also very different.。Bet365 app download The relationship between "China" and the outside world，In many cases, the interaction of some areas of "China" and some regions of the outside world is actually。So，The focus of research can be placed in the interaction between some areas of "China" and some parts of the outside world。For example，Fujian Vietnam region has long -term civil trade with Southeast Asia，Even in the period of implementing the "sea ban" policy in the Central Dynasty，This kind of exchanges did not disappear，On the contrary, it is constantly developing。If we are not based on the national policy that reflects the will of the nationwide ruler, we study these exchanges，So you should get the results closer to the real history。

Second，These interactions are many aspects、Multi -nature and multiple participants，The result is also multiple，Should not just pay simply attention to a certain aspect、A one -to -one interaction between a certain nature and one -to -one with a participant，And the situation in the positive and negative aspects of these interactions should be attached to it。One of the core issues that the historian history of Chinese and foreign relations was "Tonggong System"，Do a lot of research，I put forward a lot of views。Although some of the regions of different forms of regimes outside China and China under the tributary system, there will also be some economic exchanges and cultural exchanges (such as "Tonggong Trade")，But the center of this system is the political relationship between China and these regimes，Economy in this framework、Culture and other communication at the scale、frequency、Content、Volume and other aspects are very limited。Another，Bet365 app download The relationship between China and these regimes，It does not only depend on the situation of the two parties，and depend on the situation of all parties outside。For example，bilateral relations between China and North Korea，It is received by China and Japan、A major influence of Asahi Relations; bilateral relations between China and some state countries in Southeast Asia，It is also between these states and foreigners (such as Portugal、Spain、Dutch、English、French Western colonists) important influence。So，Can't simply look at the relationship between China and related states with a "one -to -one" vision，should put this relationship in a network to study。

other，Bet365 app download The relationship between China and related states，The impact on China is not all positive，Its negative effects not only exist，and sometimes it has great destructiveness。Typical examples are opium trade。Before the arrival of Europeans，Opium is an important export product from India，It was trafficked to all parts of the East。D. Barbosa, the cousin of Magellan, who lives in India and the East, said，Di Wutan near the Campba Bay, West Coast of India is a prosperous opium trading center，Businessmen buy opium here，transport to Malacca，Sell to businessmen from various countries，Among them, Chinese businessmen。After Europeans arrive，I found that the opium trade has huge profits.，So actively participate in it。The Portuguese also passes through violence、sea blockade and other means，Remove Arabic merchants and Indian merchants，Strive to monopolize opium trade。Portuguese trafficking is basically Merhwa Opopoly produced in the west coast of India，It was called "Campbell Opium" at the time。mid -16th century，After the Portuguese occupied Macau，Their opium is mainly transported to China。After the Dutch in the 17th century, the Dutch came to the east，also transported Indian opium to other regions to obtain profits，But the carried opium is mainly produced in Bangladesh Opium。mid -19th century，A person named Jean de thevenot traveled to India，Say opium is a major export product in India，Many opium sold on the Heideraba market，Dutch people transport pepper and other products to exchange opium here。So，If you leave the trade network involved in all parties，Simply regard the opium trade as a bilateral trade between Western powers such as China and the United Kingdom，It is undoubtedly a violation of historical authenticity。

third，The network formed by these communication is not unchanged，Instead, it is constantly changing with the changes in various aspects。Some old network decline、The rise of some new networks，How about Bet365 app download The relationship between each other，Is the old and new replacement，Still the old and new coexistence，or promotes each other in the old and new，All need to study in -depth research，Can't generalize in general。For example，After the Europeans came Bet365 app download to Southeast Asia，Use the original trade network，Created a new、greater trade network。These new networks are under the control of the colonists，To protect your trade hegemony，The colonists suppress or even slaughter the participants (especially Chinese businessmen) in the original trading network。In these networks，The relationship between Chinese businessmen and European colonists is very complicated，There is a conflict of interest，There is also a side of mutual cooperation。where，Chinese businessmen and the "partner" relationship between the most powerful trading organization in Asia in the 17th century in Asia，It is considered to be the basis for China's overseas trade to achieve great success in Southeast Asia in the 17th and 18th centuries。So，It is not advisable to look at the problem with a simple vision。

Simply speaking，History of Sino -foreign relations in global history，Just treat the world as a number of interconnected areas，Look at these contacts within a global framework。In this sense,，is the combination of regional history into global history，or regional history under the global historical framework。Since we conduct this study with China as the starting point，So for us，This is the history of Sino -foreign relations。

　Breakthrough in the history of the history of the country

Research on Regional History and Global History has a common feature，Breaks through the limitations of the study of the history of the country in the past，Place the research object in a vast range of time and space for in -depth discussion。Since both negate the "national standard"，"Social Space" instead of "State" as the basic unit for viewing history，So the connection between each other is the center of this research。Mr. Zhao Shiyu pointed out: "The work of historians is actually discovering and establishing a connection，That is, according to a certain historical logic，Establishing associated with those seemingly irrelevant historical fragments in specific space -time，Then judge these associations。From regional history research to global history research，From the establishment of a connection inside a space to establishing different spaces ... Establish a historical connection in any area，can be ‘global’，It can also be ‘regional’，We should find historical associations of different scale in different regional historical processes，Treat ‘global’ or ‘regional’。"(Zhao Shiyu:" Research in China: Global History、Jiangnan Regional History and History Anthropology "，"Exploration and Contention" 2016 No. 4)

Of course，I have never degraded the meaning of the major achievements achieved by the History of Sino -foreign relations in the past。On the contrary，I think the significance of these achievements is very important。It is because of these achievements，Only with the history of Chinese and foreign relations，and make this discipline continuously developed，A livelihood army of becoming a history of history。I also have bet365 Play online games no intention to deny the characters and role played by relevant countries in the evolution of Chinese and foreign relations after the formation of modern countries，This is the historical origin of Chinese and foreign relations today。I put forward some immature views in this article，Think like any discipline，The subject of Chinese and foreign relations should also keep pace with the times，Draw nutrition from other disciplines，Continuously expand research field，Rich research method，Make yourself more perfect in all aspects。Half a century ago，Chairman of the British History Society Paleklav was commissioned by UNESCO，Summary of the development of history in the world after World War II。He wrote: "The progress of historical sciences in the past 15 to 20 years is amazing facts"，But "According to records，90 % of the historical works recently published，Regardless of research methods and research objects，Still from the concept system，Full of traditional。Like some industrial departments in the old -fashioned developed countries，History is only satisfied with the capital that is inherited by inheritance，Continue to use old machines "。The most important reason for this situation，lies in the historian's "deep -rooted psychological obstacles"，That is, "Historians will not be willing to give up their accumulation and rethink the basic principles of their work"。For this reason，"History has reached the decisive turning period"。To solve the crisis，Just seek a new method、Expansion of vision。Because of this，History is a constant change、Disciplines constantly moving。Not only the history of Chinese and foreign relations，And other disciplines of history，All need to be continuously improved、Active progress，can the discipline eternal youth，I will not fall into the sad situation that Paleklav said。

(The author is a professor of humanities at Peking University)