My major is Chinese economic bet365 joining bonus code，Especially the economic bet365 joining bonus code of Jiangnan in the Ming and Qing Dynasties。In people’s minds in the past，The economic bet365 joining bonus code of Jiangnan in the Ming and Qing Dynasties is the academic field of "local bet365 joining bonus code" (or "regional bet365 joining bonus code") in "Chinese bet365 joining bonus code"，Seems to have little to do with the bet365 joining bonus code of Sino-foreign relations。But，Jiangnan has had economic ties with overseas countries for a long time，Especially during the Ming and Qing Dynasties，This exchange is getting stronger day by day，Becoming an aspect that cannot be ignored when studying the economic evolution of Jiangnan。Therefore，In recent decades，The economic relationship between Jiangnan and overseas countries in the Ming and Qing Dynasties has become an important field in the field of economic bet365 joining bonus code。In recent years，My research interests gradually turn to global bet365 joining bonus code，To observe China’s economic changes in the Ming and Qing Dynasties from a global historical perspective。The economic ties between China and the outside world are an important part of Sino-foreign relations，So I pay special attention to the bet365 joining bonus code of Sino-foreign relations。But，I don’t study the bet365 joining bonus code of Sino-foreign relations after all，Only from an outsider’s perspective，Propose some immature opinions，I would like to offer criticism and correction to all scholars。

　Closely connected with the outside bet365 joining bonus code

No human group can truly be isolated from the world，Whether voluntary or forced，All must have different forms and qualities of contact with other groups。China is certainly no exception。In order to correct the long-popular theory of China’s “isolation” in academic circles，Jonathan Spence wrote in the preface of the book "In Search of Modern China": "From 1600 onwards，China’s destiny as a country，It’s intertwined with other countries，Have to join other countries to search for rare resources，Exchange goods，Expand knowledge。”He only talked about the situation after 1600，So what about before 1600？Valerie Hansen said in the preface of the book "Open Empire": China before 1600 was "an empire that integrated different regions and peoples when it was formed，And remain open to outside influences throughout its long bet365 joining bonus code，Rather than a Middle Kingdom that rejects outside influence”。The "time of formation" she mentioned started from the Shang Dynasty。Therefore，Since the bet365 joining bonus code of Chinese writing，It is a country that has close ties with the outside world。

However，Shi Jingqian and Han Sen were talking about "China"，They all start from the "China" in the minds of most people today，And this concept is based on the cognitive basis of modern nation-states。However，In human bet365 joining bonus code，Nation-state is a new thing that has only appeared in recent centuries。"Country" before this，There is a big difference from the current country。Therefore，The relationship between "country" and "country" at that time was also very different from now。From this perspective，When we are talking about "China" and "foreign" relations in the bet365 joining bonus code of Sino-foreign relations，There are obvious differences between pre-modern times and modern times。

The concept of "bet365 joining bonus code" first appeared in the Western Zhou Dynasty。Spring and Autumn Period，“bet365 joining bonus code” is relative to “Sifang” and “Siyi”。There used to be many different ethnic groups living in the Central Plains area，In the so-called state of "Hua Yi living together"。In the Spring and Autumn Period，The sense of identity of the Chinese ethnic group is gradually increasing，The Chinese states began to pay attention to the differences between Hua and Yi，Believe that Huayi has its natural boundaries，Cannot be confused。Some vassal states expanded their territories through war，And put forward the slogan of "respecting the king and rejecting the barbarians"，Continuous wars with surrounding ethnic groups。These minority groups were either assimilated or expelled to remote places，The geographical distinction between Huayi and Huayi is gradually becoming clear。

After Qin and Han Dynasties，The surrounding ethnic groups still play a major role in bet365 joining bonus code。Sima Qian described the bet365 joining bonus code of ethnic groups that were closely related to the Han Dynasty，Written "Biography of Xiongnu", "Biography of South Vietnam", "Biography of East Vietnam", "Biography of Korea", "Biography of Southwest Yi" and "Biography of Dawan"，Created the foundation for the subsequent official bet365 joining bonus code of Siyi biographies。Zaiyuan、Qing Dynasty，Out of taboo, this nation comes from the Dongyi people called Dongyi by the previous Central Plains dynasty、Beidi’s considerations，The revised bet365 joining bonus code of the two dynasties did not write the national bet365 joining bonus code according to the Siyi system，Instead, some of the former Siyi ethnic groups are called "foreign countries"，This is when the formal distinction between “foreign countries” and “China” began to be roughly made。Especially the Qing Dynasty，Within its well-defined boundaries，Provinces in the Central Plains where Han people already live，Also includes remote areas where people of all ethnic groups live。Therefore，The "China" in the minds of the rulers of the Qing Dynasty is no longer the narrow "China" in the past。"Comprehensive Examination of Qing Dynasty Documents·Four Origins" compiled during the Qianlong period，To Mongolia、Tibet、The Hui tribe and others no longer call them "barbarians"，The scope of the four descendants，North Korea in the east、Japan、Ryukyu；South is Annan、Nanzhang、Guangnan、Myanmar、Gourd、Siam、Port、Cambodia、Song Zhibang、Johor、Aceh、Luzon、Mang Junda Lao、Sulu、Brunei、Ma Chen、Old Port、Mangasa、Galaba、Italia、Bordugar、English、Dry silk wax、Netherlands、Flangji、Swiss Country、Sneeze Country；West is East and West Bulut、Andiyan、Hohan、Namgan、Margalang、Tashkent、Badak Mountain、Borol、Aiwuhan；North is Russia、Left and right Kazakh、Qi Qiyusi、Ergenqi。Therefore，In bet365 joining bonus code，“China” is an ever-changing concept within the spatial scope。

Not only that，Before the rise of modern nation-states，As a relatively modern country，There is only China in the world。Francis Fukuyama in "Political Order and Political Decline: From the Industrial Revolution to Democratic Globalization"，From the perspective of global bet365 joining bonus code and comparative bet365 joining bonus code，The national issues in bet365 joining bonus code are explained as follows:

If you want to study the rise of the country，China deserves more attention than Greece and Rome，Because only China has established a modern state that meets Max Weber’s definition。China has successfully developed a unified central bureaucratic government，Manage a large population and a vast territory，Especially compared to Mediterranean Europe。China has already invented a non-private and merit-based bureaucratic recruitment system，More systematic than Roman public administration。1 AD，China’s total population is comparable to that of the Roman Empire，The proportion of China’s population that is governed by unified rules，Far better than Rome。Rome has its own important heritage，Especially in the legal field。As a pioneer of modern accountable government，Greece and Rome are very important。But in terms of national development，China is more important...classic modernization theory written by great men，Like Karl Marx、Emile Durkheim、Henry Maine、Ferdinand Tonnies、Max Weber，Tend to believe that Western experience is a model for modernization，Because industrialization first occurred in the West...the emergence of modern political institutions in bet365 joining bonus code，Long before the industrial revolution and modern capitalist economy。Elements of the modern state as we now understand it，Already in place in China in the 3rd century BC。Its emergence in Europe，A full 1800 years later...classic modernization theory，Tend to regard European development as the standard，Only inquire why other societies deviate。I regard China as a model for country formation，Ask why other civilizations don’t copy China’s path。

Visible，In the world bet365 joining bonus code of state formation，China seems to be a special case，Most "countries" outside of China do not have the modern meaning that China has。Not only that，China since the unification of Qin，Having long-term and relatively stable territories in most periods。Countries in other regions mostly experienced rise and fall，The territory is also flexible，Their relations with China are also diverse and fluctuating。Therefore，Look at the historical “Chinese-foreign” relations from today’s perspective，There is undoubtedly a problem。

　　See bet365 joining bonus code an interconnected area

Since we cannot look at the historical “Chinese-foreign” relations from today’s perspective，Then，With what eyes should I look at it？I think，In this regard，A global bet365 joining bonus code perspective may be helpful。

Global bet365 joining bonus code has been a hot topic in international academic circles in recent years。According to Mr. Liu Xincheng’s summary，Among the five basic positions of global bet365 joining bonus code，First，Abandon the traditional thinking model of countries as the unit in previous world bet365 joining bonus code research，The basic narrative unit should be a network formed by several societies that are interdependent；Second，The overall trend of global development is only reflected in the three major processes that are truly universal to all societies (i.e. population growth、Progress and spread of technology、Among the growing exchanges between different societies；Third，In the above three major processes，The most important thing is the increasingly close communication between different societies。

Starting from these positions，I think the following approaches can be considered in the study of the bet365 joining bonus code of Sino-foreign relations。

First，Downplay the past distinction between “Chinese” and “foreign” based on the background of modern nation-states，Regard the areas effectively governed by the central dynasties in Chinese bet365 joining bonus code as "central"，The areas outside it are regarded as "outside"，Consider "middle" and "outer" as areas of varying sizes。"China" in the territory、Population、Economic size and other aspects are rarely matched in world bet365 joining bonus code before modern times，The natural conditions of various regions within "China"、There are also great differences in terms of economic development levels and connections with regions outside "China"。Interactions between "China" and the outside world，In many cases, it is actually the exchanges between certain areas of "China" and certain areas of the outside world。Therefore，The focus of research can be on the exchanges between certain areas of "China" and certain areas of the outside world。For example，The Fujian-Vietnam region has long-term non-governmental trade relations with Southeast Asia，Even during the period when the Central Dynasty implemented the "sea ban" policy，This kind of communication has not disappeared，On the contrary, it is still developing。If we do not study these exchanges based on national policies that reflect the will of the country’s rulers，Then we should get results that are closer to historical reality。

Second，These interactions are multifaceted、Multi-nature and multi-participant，The results are also multiple，Don’t just focus on one aspect、Something of a nature and one-to-one interaction with a participant，And we should pay equal attention to both the positive and negative aspects of these interactions。One of the core issues that the historians of Sino-foreign relations were concerned about earlier was the "tributary system"，And did a lot of research，Proposed many insightful opinions。Although under the tributary system, bet365 joining bonus code will also have some economic and cultural exchanges (such as "tributary trade") with areas ruled by different forms of regimes outside bet365 joining bonus code，But the centerpiece of this system is the political relationship between bet365 joining bonus code and these regimes，Economy in this framework、Cultural and other exchanges are on a large scale、frequency、Content、The size and other aspects are very limited。Also，bet365 joining bonus code’s relationship with these regimes，It does not just depend on the circumstances of both parties，And it depends on the circumstances of other parties。For example，Bilateral relations between bet365 joining bonus code and North Korea，Just received by bet365 joining bonus code and Japan、Major influence on North Korea-Japan relations；Bilateral relations between bet365 joining bonus code and some Southeast Asian countries，It is also affected by these states and outsiders (such as Portugal、Spain、Netherlands、English、The important influence of French and other Western colonists。Therefore，We cannot simply view the relationship between bet365 joining bonus code and relevant countries from a "one-on-one" perspective，This relationship should be studied in a network。

In addition，Relationships between bet365 joining bonus code and relevant states，The impact on bet365 joining bonus code is not always positive，The negative effects not only exist，And sometimes very destructive。A typical example is the opium trade。Long before the Europeans arrived，Opium is an important export commodity from India，Trafficked to various places in the East。Barbossa (D, Magellan’s cousin who lived in India and the East. Barbosa) said，Diu Island near the Bay of Cambay on the west coast of India is a prosperous opium trade center，Businessmen buy opium here，Shipping to Malacca，Sold to merchants from various countries，Including Chinese businessmen。After the arrival of Europeans，Discovered huge profits from the opium trade，So we actively participated in it。The Portuguese also plundered through violence、Sea blockade and other means，Exclusion of Arab traders and Indian traders，Strive to monopolize the opium trade。What the Portuguese trafficked was basically Malwa opium produced on the west coast of India，It was called "Cambay Opium" at that time。Mid 16th century，After the Portuguese occupied Macau，Their opium is mainly shipped to bet365 joining bonus code。After the Dutch came east in the 17th century，Also transport Indian opium to other areas for profit，But the opium trafficked is mainly Bangladeshi opium produced in the Ganges River Basin。Mid 19th century，A man named Jean de Thevenot traveled to India，Said opium is a major export commodity from India，A lot of opium for sale in Hyderabad market，The Dutch brought pepper and other commodities here to exchange for opium。Therefore，If you leave the trade network in which all parties participate，Think of the opium trade simply as bilateral trade between bet365 joining bonus code and Western powers such as Britain，It is undoubtedly contrary to historical reality。

　Third，The network formed by these interactions is not static，But it is constantly changing with changes in various conditions。Some old network decline、Some new networks are rising，How are they related to each other，replaces the old with the new，Still old and new coexist，Or the old and the new push each other，Both require in-depth study，Cannot be generalized。For example，After Europeans came to Southeast Asia，Use the original trade network，Created new、A larger trade network。These new networks are under colonial control，In order to protect one’s trade hegemony，The colonists suppressed or even massacred participants in the original trade network (especially Chinese businessmen)。In these networks，The relationship between Chinese businessmen and European colonists is complicated，Existing conflict of interest，There is also a side of mutual cooperation。Among them，The "partnership" relationship between Chinese businessmen and the Dutch East India Company, the most powerful Western trading organization in Asia in the 17th century，Considered to be the basis for bet365 joining bonus code’s overseas trade to achieve great success in Southeast Asia in the 17th and 18th centuries。Therefore，It is not appropriate to look at the problem in a simplistic way。

Simply put，The bet365 joining bonus code of Sino-foreign relations from the perspective of global bet365 joining bonus code，It is to view the world as a number of interconnected areas，See these connections in a global context。In this sense，It is the combination of regional bet365 joining bonus code into global bet365 joining bonus code，Or regional bet365 joining bonus code within the framework of global bet365 joining bonus code。Because we are conducting this research with China as the starting point，So for us，This is also the bet365 joining bonus code of Sino-foreign relations。

　Breaking through the limitations of national bet365 joining bonus code research

Regional bet365 joining bonus code research and global bet365 joining bonus code research have a common feature，That is, breaking through the limitations of national bet365 joining bonus code research that was prevalent in the past，Place the research object within a broad space-time scope and conduct in-depth discussion。Because both of them deny "state-based"，Use "social space" rather than "country" as the basic unit to examine bet365 joining bonus code，So the connection between each other is the center of this kind of research。Mr. Zhao Shiyu pointed out: "The job of historians is actually to discover and establish connections，That is, according to a certain historical logic，Relate seemingly unrelated historical fragments in a specific time and space，Then make judgments about these associations。From regional bet365 joining bonus code research to global bet365 joining bonus code research，That is, from establishing a correlation within a space to establishing a correlation between different spaces... establishing a historical correlation in any area，All can be ‘global’，Can also be ‘regional’，We should find historical correlations of different scales in different regional historical processes，A flexible approach to ‘global’ or ‘regional’。" (Zhao Shiyu: "Studying in China: Global bet365 joining bonus code、Jiangnan Regional bet365 joining bonus code and Historical Anthropology》，"Exploration and Debate" 2016 Issue 4)

Of course，I have no intention of belittling the major achievements made in previous studies on the bet365 joining bonus code of Sino-foreign relations。Opposite，I think these achievements are of great significance。It is precisely because of these achievements，That is why the bet365 joining bonus code of Sino-foreign relations is a subject，And make this subject continue to flourish，Become a new force in bet365 joining bonus code。I have no intention of denying the role played by various relevant countries in the evolution of Sino-foreign relations after the formation of modern countries，This is the historical origin of today’s Sino-foreign relations。I made some immature opinions in this article，Think like any subject，The discipline of bet365 joining bonus code of Sino-foreign relations should also keep pace with the times，Draw nourishment from other disciplines，Continuously expanding research horizons，Enrich research methods，Make yourself more perfect in all aspects。Half a century ago，President Barraclough of the British Historical Society was commissioned by UNESCO，Summary of the development of bet365 joining bonus code in various countries around the world after World War II。He wrote: "The progress of historical science in the last fifteen to twenty years is an astonishing fact"，But "according to records，Ninety percent of recently published historical works，Regardless of research methods and research objects，Still from the perspective of conceptual system，Completely following the tradition。Like some industrial sectors in established developed countries，bet365 joining bonus code is content only with inherited capital，Continuing to use outdated machines”。The most important reason for this situation，It lies in the "deep-seated psychological barriers" of historians，i.e. "Historians will not willingly abandon their old habits and rethink the fundamentals of their work"。For this reason，“bet365 joining bonus code has reached a decisive turning point”。To solve the crisis，We need to find new methods、Expand your horizons。Exactly because of this，bet365 joining bonus code is a constant change、Disciplines that keep moving forward。Not only the bet365 joining bonus code of Sino-foreign relations，And other disciplines of bet365 joining bonus code，Everyone needs to constantly improve themselves、Proactive and enterprising，Only can the subject stay young forever，Won’t fall into the sad situation Barraclough said。

(The author is Chair Professor of Humanities at Peking University)