17th century，Tsar Russian forces invaded Heilongjiang Basin。With the increasing conflict，China and Russia have signed the "Nibuchu Treaty" and "Chakt Treaty Treaty"，Divide the border in the eastern and middle areas，At the same time, constantly build their own border defense system。Different from guiding ideology，The Sino -Russian border defense system presents the features of stability, restraint and continuous expansion, respectively。The border defense system constructed by the two countries in the early Qing Dynasty，To a certain extent, the drastic changes in the border between the late Qing Dynasty。

　　bet365 best casino games In the early Qing Dynasty，The defense range frame of the Qing court to Russia is set in the territory established in the twenty -four years of Qianlong (1759): the northeast and north of the south of the boundary stipulated in the treaty，The northwest is in the area under the jurisdiction of the original Junggar Ministry，is the area south of Lake Balkham。

The border defense system of the Qing Dynasty mainly includes the founding of the city，Set up the military，Jian Karen、Post Station，Tun Tian and Patrol and other content。The Qing court set up General Shengjing in the Northeast、General Jilin and General Heilongjiang，Establish a fixed -side left deputy general in the Mobe area，The Minister of Office of Kuron Office、Counselor Minister of Kobado and other local chiefs，Set up General Yili in Xinjiang，Administration of Counselor of the Talbahatai、Counselor Minister of Kashgar。In Heilongjiang、Jilin sets the flag of various ethnic groups，Ling Kalka Mongolia "Defense Fang" in Mobei area，In the Xinjiang area, eight flags、Green Camp Bet365 lotto review is located in various places。Set up Karen，Guarding border defense。But the border Karen is usually far from the border，Karen Line is not a boundary。Officers and soldiers regularly inspect the boundary line and its area，View stone monument as a boundary、Is there any damage to Epobo，Whether the Russians have a boundary behavior。But in the northwest region, the sidewalk was originally to prevent the residual forces of Amulusana from escaping into Kazakhstan and Russia，Later, the guardian border and supervision overseas Kazakhstan、The nomadic combination of ethnic groups such as Erut。other，Post system guarantee information transmission is unobstructed，​​Tuntian guarantee military food supply。

The border defense and border governance of the Qing Dynasty are combined，The various measures taken to some extent curb the expansion of Russia to Chinese territory to a certain extent，Defending the frontier。But in general，The border defense of the Qing court is based on the main goal of defending and maintaining stability，When the specific processing boundary problem，The ruler is often satisfied with the interesting people。Even if the attitude towards Russia is tough after the flat standard、Emperor Qianlong, who had closed the city many times, could not help but here，Finally, the cross -border behavior of the Russian -belonging to the Russian people in Khanhatun region defaults。After entering the 19th century，The National Power of the Qing Dynasty showed a show，The two emperors of Jiadao are increasingly restrained by border defense affairs。Emperor Jiaqing with Karen as a critical point for border affairs in Northwest China，Emperor Daoguang also inherited his father's approach。The concept of the ruler directly affects the subordinate of the frontier area，As a result, the sidelines of the northwest border areas eventually became bet365 Play online games a Karen line that was far from the border，and the large -scale territory outside the world is negligible to defense，Planted hidden dangers for the future loss。Similarly，The sidewalk on the border between the Northeast and Northern and Northern and Northern parts also flows in the form。

　Second, Tsarist Russia has continued to expand external.Russia's construction of the border defense system of the Qing Dynasty，It is part of its expansion process in Siberia。After the 24th year of Qianlong，The territory of the Qing Dynasty was basically stable。Russia is different，It has not stopped splitting in South Siberia and Central Asia，Its border defense outpost has maintained a situation in the direction of China。Russia first in Esuhehe、Yeinse River、Lenhe River、Heilongjiang and other water systems of dry flow or tributary traffic roads，Establish a one from Tobersk to Tormusk、Krasnosk、Ilkutsk、Sexedsk、The Castle Line of Yakuzk to Nelqinusk (Nibuchu)。then，Expand the dry flow and tributaries along the major rivers，Another series of castles and fortresses were established on the south，Double defense。18th century of the 1960s，Russia promotes the Eris Port to the Buchtarma River，Its power enters the Qing Dynasty Wu Lianghai。1920s，Russia stepped up to annex the Kazakh grassland，1930，Promote the outpost near the border of the western China。

The Russian government has set up Siberian Yamen (1637)，As a decision -making authority in Siberian colonial (previously under the jar of Kazan Affairs House); implementing military autocracy led by the supervisor in the local area，Administration in the area of ​​the supervisor、Military、Economy、Judicial and other power。Neilchensk Governor's Military Region and the Sedegosk Du Military Division have become the center of Russia in the Heilongjiang River Basin and Ogahr's defense against bet365 best casino games the Qing Dynasty。Siberia Province in 1708，Transfer the Governor of Management of Siberia。In 1822 The Siberia Jurisdiction Regulations divided Siberia into two governors of Siberia and East and Westburia，Russia's cloth defense on the border between China and Russia is under its jurisdiction。

Due to the continuous war in Europe，The Russian government does not have the possibility of sending a lot of troops to Siberia。Therefore，Continuously exiled to a tramp and farmers in Siberia、The exiled prisoners and prisoners of war, and the conquered Britt Mongolians and the Tonggus people were compiled into the Cossack Army。Part of Cossack Services in the middle of the army，Another part of ordinary Cossack is not included in military preparation，Normal farming，Recruitment when necessary。Due to limited troops，The Russian government has an organized immigration real border，Encourage farming，Add food self -sufficiency。With the increase of immigration，Castle as the center，Formed some villages around，Gong Guard with Castle。Russians from Europe and Russia，Bring a traditional Russian village community system，The village community assumes to assist the government for taxes、functions to maintain social order，Strict supervision of farmers。Missionary also accompanied them。With the support of the government，Continuously induced alien people to accept Orthodox Church，Join Russia，Serving military service，Loyal Sand Emperor。

This，From the construction of the Fort Castle to the Immigration of the Army、Administrative Management、Land Development、Religious penetration，Russia has established a set of border defense systems for the Qing Dynasty。

　Third, there are very different guidance ideas.Generally speaking，There are some common contents of the border defense system established by China and Russia in the early Qing Dynasty，Rujian City、Squad、Utilize the local ethnic border, etc.，But the two show their own features that seeking stability, restraint and continuous expansion。Reasons for the reason，It is a very different guiding ideology of the two countries' foreign policies。

Chinese have lived in a relatively closed geographical space since ancient times，The ancient dynasty built a world system centered on China in this space，Emphasize "below the world，Mo Fei King Tu "and" Huayi Different "，Proposed "Tianzi You Road，Keep in Siyi "。The rulers are satisfied with the nominal service of the surrounding nation，Do not pay attention to the clear boundary between the country，Management of management of border areas，This result。This political and cultural tradition is inherited by the Governor of the Qing Dynasty。Although the traditional "Huayi Defense" in the early Qing Dynasty was gradually replaced by "defense of Chinese and foreign"，The Chingistan governs also showed some modern boundary consciousness when dealing with boundaries，In the form of a treaty, it is divided by the Russian boundary，Proclaimed that "our country will not unreasonably take the soil of other countries，Never make me so much soil for people "。But in fact，until before the Opium War，The border concept of the Governor of the Ching Dynasty is still more affected by traditional ideas，Modern boundary consciousness that must fight inch soil is not clear。Emperor Yongzheng warned the commissioned officials to "do not be stubbornly arguing with useless places"，As mentioned earlier, Qianlong and Jiaqing、Daoguang emperor's attitude to deal with boundaries。This has caused the Qing court to have no long -term business consciousness in external border defense，Lack of enough understanding of Russia's expansion。In the Northeast region，As early as the Kangxi dynasty, the Heilongjiang General Governance Office continued to move south，From the bet365 best casino games old cricket city to Heilongjiang City，Then go to Melgen City、Qiqihar，Therefore, the actual weakening of the Qing court's control of the Heilongjiang Basin。other，In the border defense system established by the Qing court，Seriously ignored people's factors。If the Qing court implemented a ban policy in the Northeast region，Only rely on a small number of officers and soldiers and limited number of border people; in Mongolia，Although the karkha Mongolia is the Pingfan，However, heavier service to herders，Tired of it，Gradual centrifugation。This makes the Qing Dynasty gradually abandoned the border defense against Russia，so that in the late Qing Dynasty, under the Russian offensive。

On the other hand, Russia。One aspect，The ancestors of the Russian East Slap wap the Eastern European Plain, which is open on all sides，Lack of natural barriers around，They are accustomed to pursuing the infinite extension of the land。On the other hand，Russia was originally an inland country，Fighting out of Haikou is the cornerstone of the foreign policy of the Tsarist government after Ivan IV。Therefore，Russian border defense policy is completely different from the Qing Dynasty，Not in Chengcheng，Entrusting。Although signed a border treaty with the Qing court，But Tsarist Russia has never really bound themselves in the treaty framework。"The Treaty of Chakkit" shortly，Russians start to set up grids on the side of China。mid -18th century，Russian Foreign Affairs Gate has discussed that if Zhebzun Danba Hutuktu agrees to vote for Russia，Russia will receive it，Because this means that the Kalka Mongolian income pocket。other，The Tsarist Government has continuously used the cross -border people between the two countries to penetrate the Chinese territory。Therefore，Although the Siberian land is wide, the people are thin，The border defense construction Bet365 app download of Tsarist Russia is actually in vain，But due to the clear goal of Tsarist Russia，Keep the expansion trend，Keep promoting the outpost，Immigration Real Border，Therefore, it actually consolidates the land occupied。

To sum up，It is because of the different guidance ideas of the Qing Russian border defense，The operating effect of the two on border defense is also very different。The border defense system built in the early Qing Dynasty，To a certain extent, the border between the two countries in the second half of the 19th century。

(Author Unit: Institute of Qing History of Renmin University of China)