Carl Bercell (1873-1945) is a famous American historian，Once the chairman of the American History Society，Published in 1932 "The Tiansheng of the 18th Century Philosopher"。He himself wants this collection of speech，I think this is my most mature work: "The best idea、The most thorough thinking and the best writing。"Concentration in this article，Bercell expressed a disruptive and controversial view on the 18th century European Enlightenment。

　　Bet365 lotto review "The Tiansheng of the 18th Century Philosopher" is compiled by Berkel's four speeches made at Yale University Law School，These four articles are "The Climate of Public Opinion", "The God of Nature and the God of Nature", "New History: Using Previous Teaching Philosophy" and "Use of Later Later"。In these articles，He elaborated the following theme: the impact of medieval Christian thought on the so -called modern spirit，More significant than everyone usually thinks、More lasting; Aquina's theory has a huge impact on some literati in the 18th century;，Continue to exist in the 18th century philosopher in another form; these philosophers are destroying the city of God in Augustine，Rebuild it with new materials。

Becker thinks，There is a "public opinion climate" in each era，It is composed of those preconceived views that adhere to the general sense of people。He tried to prove，Compared with people's previous understanding，Enlightenment thinkers In fact, in fact, it is more in line with the Middle Ages "Public Opinion Climate"。He found a dominant Christian worldview from the Enlightenment，Concepts such as "Nature" Bet365 app download and "Natural Law" requested by the Apocalypse of the Apocalypse，New vocabulary deemed to describe the characteristics of Christian God。

Bercell claims，18th century philosophers are not "anti -history"，On the contrary，They are very concerned about history，Early examine history，I hope to find the eternal principles of human experience from it。These philosophers tend to coordinate human experience and facts that are preconceived with them，Including people are either born or fallen、The purpose of life is life itself、People can improve through my rationality and experience、The primary condition of a better life is to liberate the human mind from the constraints of ignorance and superstition。They let history fulfill the function of abstract rationality: distinguish between natural good and natural evil，Differentiated a variety of customs suitable for human nature and not suitable for human nature。They hold an outlook on progress: now better than the past，The future will be better than the present。In other words，These philosophers tend to treat the future as a beautiful soil、A new millennium kingdom。They want future generations to realize the ideal image of Christian ideal society and ancient golden age。

Becker thinks，They replace the love of God with love for human beings、Replace the doctrine of atonement with the doctrine of sexual doctrine、The hope of living in the memory of the future generation replaces the immortal beliefs of the life。He asserts，Middle Ages' thinking habits still exist in the 18th century，It's just that it is used to deal with new objects;，Enlightenment philosophers have also created a Tiancheng，Just move it to this life，It's just replacing the existing bet365 Play online games gods with new gods。Therefore，The Enlightenment should be regarded as the philosophical case of the medieval century，instead of modern cases。

"The Tiansheng of the 18th Century Philosopher" caused a sensation in the academic community once it came out，Of course there is no shortage of criticism，The most severe criticism from German American scholar Peter Gay。1957，Gayi published a comment article on the "Political Science Season"，I believe that Baker has fundamentally misunderstood the essence of the 18th century，His criticism of the enlightenment philosopher "Have all other advantages except justice"。but but，Roger Emerson of Xi'an University University defended Baker。

　　Second, Peter Gay's criticism of Baker.Becker thinks，The historian must consider the dialectical relationship of durability and change，Can't be deceived by false novelty and consistency。Gai admits the value of this advice，Point out at the same time，Becker undoubtedly emphasized the past weight and influence。From Bercell's view，Although the climate of public opinion between the 13th and 18th centuries has undergone tremendous changes，but but，Their connection is closer than the surface that looks or the enlightenment philosopher recognizes it。Gai pointed out，Berkel is caught in a "false consistency" trap at this time。Bercell announced，18th and 13th centuries are the age of faith，Gai believes that this is playing text games。The belief of the 13th century is to obey something that cannot be proved or demonstrated，and the 18th century's belief in rationality，You can use a more neutral word "conscience" to express。The proof of the belief in rational is open，Allows review and refute。For enlightenment philosophers，"Reasoning Belief" only means that rational methods are better than other methods to acquire knowledge。Gayi thinks，"Consecration of enlightenment philosophers believes that rationality may be witty，But this paradox cannot solve any problems in the history of thought "。

Becker pointed out，18th -century thinker laughed at the universe as a point of view created in six days，But they still believe it，God created this exquisite machine for human beings based on the rational plan。From Gay's view，This outlook on the universe is not necessarily Christian，It has long been the basis of the philosophy of Stoogpai。Therefore，The important thing is not the similarity of this assumption machine to Christianity，but the refutation of the miracle in it or dark。Another，Berkel claims that the 18th century philosopher believes "immortality of the soul"，Gay pointed out that Montesquat、Dudero and others are not believers。

Beckerltu indicates，Enlightenment philosophers belong to the tradition of natural law，Natural Law is an important connection between Christian public opinion climate and enlightenment.，But the Enlightenment philosopher did not realize this。Gayi thinks，Natural law tradition is quite complicated，It is difficult for people to clearly describe their development、Various ingredients、Models and multiple influences。In his opinion，Bercell's shallow discussion on natural law is untenable。First，Bercell claims that natural law is essentially Christian，In fact, the natural law originated from the Stadorpai or even earlier。In the works of Gradus and others in the early 17th century，Natural law began to eliminate Christian factors。The natural law of Christianity is a part of the legal bet365 live casino games system of God's wisdom，Modern Nature Law is secular、"Blag" and autonomous。Next，Baker did not realize，Some enlightenment philosophers even surpass this secular natural law，They do not consistently believe in natural law theory，They set up a bridge to connect the utilitarian and historicism of the 19th century "。Last，Becker does not distinguish between the natural method of rhetoric and the natural method of belief，Take the rhetoric of the Enlightenment philosopher as their profound beliefs，To get a superficial view。

　third，Roger Emerson's response。Roger Emerson made a comprehensive response to Gay's criticism。In the article "Peter Gay and Tiancheng" (1967)，Emerson claims that he wants to establish the general view of Berkell's general view in "The Tiansheng of the 18th Century Philosopher" rather than the correct case of specific cases。Emerson believes，One of the advantages of this work is to point out a similar attitude towards knowledge in the 13th and 18th centuries。Most thinkers in these two eras think，The truth they recognize is essential、General effective、Unable to be reversed。Therefore，Compared with the 20th century,，Enlightenment philosophers are more positive、The characteristics of "Philosophy of the Scripture"。

Emerson pointed out，For the acceptance of rationality，The 13th and 18th centuries exist to a large degree of similarity。In the 18th century, more relying on experience to obtain ideas and knowledge，but，It has not given up the priority thinking mode，Nor discarding system interpretation of some abstract concepts (such as people)。Aquina's grand interpretation system formed by the works of Aquina，Shock Baker is very shocked，and many Bet365 app download works in the Enlightenment era left a deep impression in the same way。For example，Becaria's "Crime and Punishment" insists on use below、Semi -interpretation method。Another，Many philosophers have a system spirit，Even the most conscious empirical, Elvixiu, can not resist interpretation and the temptation defined in "On the People"。

Emerson believes，Just like the preconceived seeing of a rational person，God、Soul and a series of abstract concepts，Also through the Enlightenment，Many people still thought at the time，Revelation is one of the sources of knowledge。Therefore，If Gay will fully refute the amazing similarity of the 13th and 18th centuries，So，He has to prove that the way of thinking of Baker's philosophers is not from the Christian tradition，Their vocabulary and organizational concepts have no implicit Christian thought。but，It is difficult to do this。In fact，People often ignore the similarity between the natural gods and the orthodox Christians。

Gay refutes the 18th -century thinker held by Berkel to believe in the immortality of the soul，but but，From Emerson's view，Gay's argument is not tight。Emerson pointed out，If Gay lists Leibniz、Adam Smith、Durgo or Kant，He will get different conclusions。Emerson also thinks，In Christian society，A large number of documents discussed the natural law，It is regarded as the law of morality and the "law of nature"，Therefore，Negative it has Christianity as a narrow move。

Of course，Berkel's description of the Enlightenment undoubtedly exaggerated the continuity of medieval thinking and enlightenment philosophers。In fact，The rational era is much more complicated than what Bercell thinks。but but，His works challenge Bet365 lotto review to historians，Promote them to rethink the 18th century。

(This article is the issue of "taxation rights and early US National Construction Research" (21CSS018) phased achievement)

(The author is a professor at the Marxist Institute of Central South University; professor of the School of History and Social Sciences of Chongqing Normal University)