The 1950s and 1960s，The "World General History" edited by the Soviet Academy of Sciences Volume 1 of the Foreword，slavery in Greece and Rome is mature，slavery of ancient oriental society is immature。What is immature slavery? This book does not make a clear explanation。but，About the production method of slave possession，The book pointed out that its basis is the personal person who possesses both production materials and workers。The exploiters will not only have the remaining products as their own in the production process，Also the entire labor results of the producer as their own。If this is the standard，Is there a slavery society in the ancient two river basin? in the case of，What are the characteristics of slavery in this society?

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In the literature of the ancient two river basins，There are many vocabulary related to slaves。Sumerian ìr、ARAD (positive)、g? 魪 me (negative)，Ardu (wardu) (positive)，WARTUM (negative) is a common title。Another，There are some vocabulary and slave identity、Labor、Source, etc.，For example, the slave of the family、Blind、Subartu people, etc.。

But the records of slaves in the ancient two river basin literature are very scattered。The main literature is the Literature of the Hammurabi Code，There are many places involved in the Old Testament Bible，For example, "Bible · Limi Ji" is about slave source、Slave is a record of the owner's property。Some Sumerian archives bet365 live casino games literature、Akkardian archives unearthed from other sites also record the situation of slave labor。other，In the management document and contract,，Relevant slave trading、Management records are rich; in various literature、Ceremony、Divination documents and letters，There are also sporadic records。

The research on the research of slaves of the ancient two river basins in the academic community is on the socio -economic status of slaves，Focus on the source of slaves、The role of slave as the property of the slave owner played、The relationship between slave labor and state management and other issues。The 1940s-70s，Scholars have studied the identity of the slave、status、Sale、Forced labor and slave labor and their relationship with the national system。Since the 1980s，Perspective based on the study of slavery research in modern times，Social politics、Cultural steering，Start paying attention to the release of slaves and social rights、top slaves and other problems，Use of slave labor、Family Life、Special marks of slaves also involve。

Due to the limitations of the data，Research on slave problems about the ancient two river basins concentrated in the third dynasty of Ur、During the Babylonian period and the New Babylon Dynasty, several stages，Conclusions can't help but one -sided。but，We can still understand the basic situation of slaves in ancient two river basins。

　　The characteristics of some typical slavery society

Slave mainly comes from prisoners of war、Sale，There are also family slaves and debt slaves。Prisoners should be the original source of slaves，Documents recorded that prisoners of war were dedicated to temples as bet365 best casino games troops，Deducting to the court，Given it to the aristocracy。Mention in Ma Rui's literature，The loot obtained by someone is 4 slaves。Some captives are blinded to the eyes，It should be a prisoner of war.。Many blind slaves appeared many times in the literature，They mainly engage in some mechanicality、Repeated labor，For example, pull milling、Draw water, etc.。

Sales of slaves are more common。Start at 3000 BC，Residents from the northern and eastern mountainous areas from the two river basin plains are already the main source of buying and selling slaves。"Bible · Limo Ji" contained "your slave、Nie Girl，You can buy from the junior high of your siege "，The tradition of buying and selling slaves in ancient Western region has been continuing。Slave trading gradually becomes an industry。At the beginning of the 2000 BC，A businessman who is engaged in slave trading in Lalsa should establish contact with the court，Responsible for the sale and rental of slaves in the court and the temple。

Debt slaves appeared at the end of the 3000 BC。Some freelancers sell for debt、Selling wives and children and other family members are slaves。But the country also restricts such temporary slaves into lifelong slaves，6 kings of the Kingdom of Babylon Cuba have issued a decree，"Establishing justice"，Release debt slave。

Slave is the owner's private property。In the inheritance of property，Slave is the most important real estate，House、Copper、Cow、Sheep and other comparisons。In some property inheritance literature，Slave or even the only real estate。Slave can be bought or exchanged by the owner，can also be used for debt、Payment、bet365 live casino games Compensation、Gift，or rent to earn profit。For this，Some slaves receive skills training，engaged in weaving、Rinse、Breeding livestock、Participate in farming and harvest。

Slave mainly exists in the palace、Temple and private families。They cultivate land、Praviers and livestock，Entering various handicraft activities and labor in the family。About slave labor，Especially the nature of slaves engaged in agriculture and handicraft labor，Different understanding of the academic community。A point of view，In the ancient two river basin society, there was no national slavery，Still staying in the family slavery stage。Some scholars think，The number of slaves in the home is small; slaves exist in the national system，But it is difficult to determine the scale。Some scholars think，Palace、Temples, etc. belong to state agencies，Slave labor has the nature of state management，It should be national slavery。

Slave has a special label。"Hammurabi Code" clearly stipulates that if the hairdresser shave off the slave's hairline，It should be punished accordingly。other，The blind people mentioned above should also be classified as a special mark of slave。Society in the ancient two river basins，The situation of slave resistance and escape has always existed。There are more records in the literature，If the "Hammurabi Code" stipulates，Assisting slaves to escape will be executed。

To sum up，It is certain that slavery exists in the ancient two river basin society，The source and labor of slaves have the same and similar features as other typical slavery society。

　　Complex face of slavery

The literature reveals the complex side of slavery in the ancient two river basins。

First，Slave appears in bet365 best casino games the construction of national public engineering，and a lot of quantity。They work together with the free man，Remuneration。Display with literature，The number of slaves involved in the distribution of compensation is basically the same as the free person。Next，The slave has the right to have some freelancers。The 1970s and 1980s，American scholar Orando Patsen once defined slavery: "Slavey is alienated to society for life、Permanent and violent control and domination of people who are usually deprived of honor。"He proposed the concept of" social death "accordingly。But the record of the literature of the ancient two river basins does not seem like this。Last，Slave can get married。There are literature records，The marriage of the slave is responsible for and signed the contract，It is stipulated that the man's owner pays the woman's owner 15 Shekler Yin as the hire。

Can these complex conditions be identified as the performance of immature slavery? I'm afraid this is not the case。Although in public engineering，Slave receives compensation like a free man，But the literature shows that slaves get rations like cattle，and the free person hired workers to receive labor remuneration，and the number of rewards、There are some differences in the types。Display with evidence，The rations obtained by slaves are often dominated by the owner。The living expenditure of the slave is responsible for the host，There is no right to dominate living materials and labor remuneration at all。The right to part of the liberal person owned by the slave，Most of them are also under the permission of the owner。Although the slave can get married，But the owner of the male slave Bet365 lotto review owns the ownership of the male and female slaves and the children they have children。Although the slave can accept skill education，But the purpose is to earn greater profits for the owner。Some archives document records that slaves appeared in the army，Scholars generally believe that they are slaves of some soldiers from the upper levels，instead of soldiers。The most important point is，Slave has no right to own real estate。Slave given a broad right to slave owners to have slaves and dominate slave labor，The labor achievements of slaves and slaves are legal belonging to the property of the slave owner。In this sense,，slavery in the ancient two river basin society has typical significance。

About the population of slaves is extremely controversial。The Source of the Slave，Prisoners should be the most important source。The number of prisoners of war records recorded in ancient literature is tens of thousands of people，or even more than 100,000 people。But it is unclear whether these prisoners of war have become slaves。Sales slave、The number of slaves of the family is unable to statistics，Limited statistical number deviation is quite large。Such as the Cuba Cun period, there are about 5,000 residents，Among them, about 500 slaves; but，The number of people found in the literature can reach 18,000 people。

to this day，Slave problems are still a problem that cannot be avoided in the historical research of ancient two river basins。About debt slave、Slave labor and their rewards、The release of slaves and social rights and other core issues still failed to solve it，Need more in -depth case analysis。

　　(This article is the National Social Science Foundation General Project "Research and Features of the World of Ancient World Civilization" (21sta023) phased achievement)

(The author is a professor at the School of History of the University of China、Researcher of the Institute of World History of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences)