In the pamphlet "Why Classics Matter"，Morley, professor of classics and bet365 offer history at the University of Exeter, gave a rather broad definition of classics: "Classics is the study of the social culture and literary and artistic works of the bet365 offer Mediterranean world。”implies that the scope of classical studies is not limited to the Greek and Roman world，At least it should also include bet365 offer civilizations such as Mesopotamia and Egypt，Sometimes even includes parts of bet365 offer India。Although his later discussion was basically limited to the Greek and Roman world，But the scope of classics today is indeed much broader than when it was first produced。

　　Imitation and Revival

Classics was gradually developed by Western scholars during the Renaissance。Although the connection between the Middle Ages and the classical world was never completely severed，But the difference in reviving classical music during the Renaissance，The humanists considered classical Latin as the main language，And imitate the creation of bet365 offer documents。In Roland’s words，“The main driving force of high culture in the Renaissance... was what people at the time called ‘studia humanitatis’，Later scholars called it ‘humanism’”。They searched hard for classical texts，Also translated some classical works into national languages ​​such as Latin or Italian。While discussing a problem，Common appeal to bet365 offer authority。Machiavelli became a farmer after political failure，After a tiring day，"At dusk，I will go home，Back to my study。At the door of the room，I took off my dusty day work clothes，Change into court clothes，Change my dignity，Enter the palace of the past where the ancients lived... I was completely fascinated by the ancients”。Quiciadenes, who criticized and imitated the ancients rather ridiculously，Not only imitates Cicero in genre and writing style，A large number of bet365 offer documents were also cited in the discussion。No exaggeration，Europeans from the 15th to the 17th centuries，Anyone who has received education，Basically all admirers of classical Greece and Rome。Reading、In the process of collating and studying bet365 offer documents，The foundation of later classical studies - philology - gradually emerged。

However，bet365 offer documents have been copied for more than a thousand years，Many are lost，The surviving text is also subject to corruption，Difficulties in understanding。To accurately understand and imitate bet365 offer times，People began to use cultural relics other than documents，Like carving、Painting、Coins、Temple、Inscriptions, etc.，Enriching and correcting the record of bet365 offer texts。On this basis，Archaeology、Numasis、Inscriptionology、Arts, etc. also appeared one after another，bet365 offer system、History、Customs, etc.，Received varying degrees of attention。To the 16th-17th centuries，Other major auxiliary disciplines of classical studies in later generations, such as epigraphy and archeology, were gradually born。

　Present and bet365 offer

The 17th and 18th centuries were an important stage in the development of classics，Many areas of politics and culture have a deep classical imprint。In the UK，Milton、Harrington and Sidney, etc.，Or use bet365 offer precedents to criticize the Stuart dynasty’s censorship of books and newspapers，Or explain your own political opinions。In France，Montesquieu's "The Spirit of the Laws" devotes one-third of its space to discussing Roman law；Rousseau’s ideal state，The system and scale are more like an bet365 offer Greek city-state。During the French Revolution，As Marx said，“The heroes of the old French Revolution… were the same as the parties and the masses of the old French Revolution，All dressed in Roman clothing，Speaking the language of Rome to fulfill contemporary tasks，That is, to lift the shackles and establish a bourgeois society”。In Germany，Hellenism begins with Winckelmann，Schiller、Goethe and Holderlin are all admirers of bet365 offer Greece。In the newly independent United States，It is said that the constitution of 1787 was formulated，Madison specially read "bet365 offer History" by French scholar Charles Rollin。

However，This trend of worshiping bet365 offer times has also been counterattacked。British classicist Bentley started by analyzing the text of the so-called "Letters of Phalaris"，Combined with historical background and bet365 offer cultural development，Proves that this letter that is admired by everyone is just a forgery。A history of Greece and Rome published in Britain in the 18th century，Most also express appropriate skepticism about documentation of early Greece or Rome。Montesquieu of France、Constant et al，They also emphasize the difference between bet365 offer times and modern times。Constant speaks out，There was no freedom in the modern sense in bet365 offer times。United States Constitution of 1787，Whether it is the basic structure of separation of powers，Still the modern bureaucracy and standing army，They are all fundamentally different from bet365 offer countries。Jefferson also made it clear in his later years，He no longer cares about bet365 offer times，“The social style was so different back then，And these people，People are so different from us now，So I think，Little can be gained from their works on government...if the political works of Aristotle or any other ancients have been lost，Or if it is not accurately translated or interpreted by us，It will not make us regret it to a large extent”。

　　Classical bet365 offer Science

From the late 18th century，Classics has become an independent subject in modern university education。With the emergence of classics in the 19th century as a study of bet365 offer Greek and Roman civilization，The corresponding professional requirements and talent training system came into being。The foundation of this knowledge is philology，Mastering bet365 offer Greek and Latin。To fully understand the bet365 offer world，Supporting disciplines such as classical archeology、Inscriptionology、Numasis、Pyrus Philology、bet365 offer art, etc.，Also becoming more professional。

With the development of classics，Disciplines that were originally in a auxiliary position have become more and more professional、Increasingly important。Take the classical history that the author is familiar with as an example。In the 18th and early 19th centuries it was still in a marginal position，Most practitioners are not professionals in universities，But a lover in society，For example, Gibbon, the author of "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire"，Mitford, author of the first multi-volume "History of Greece" in English，Groat et al. who laid the foundation for modern Athenian democracy research，None of them are professional historians。After the establishment of classics specialization，bet365 offer history has become an important branch subject，Universities begin to set up professorships in bet365 offer history，Produced by professional bet365 offer historians，bet365 offer history research has developed rapidly，Published many general histories and special works。UK、France also organized scholars to compile "Cambridge bet365 offer History" and "General History"，Systematic description of history from bet365 offer Egypt to the end of the Roman Empire。Began to compile large-scale professional reference books at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century，For example, the German "Pauli Encyclopedia of Classics"。Meanwhile，Teubner Series、Oxford Classical Literature、The Bidai Series and other classical literature collections that are representative of Western academic standards have begun to be published。Field of epigraphy，Produced multi-volume works such as "Greek Inscriptions" and "Latin Inscriptions"、Collection of large inscriptions。Archaeology、Numasis、Pyrus Literature, etc.，They all have published major works。Professionalization and the establishment of corresponding education systems，The classics reached unprecedented prosperity from the late 19th century to the early 20th century。

　　bet365 offer facing the impact

As Constant and others have realized，There are fundamental differences between modern Western society and the bet365 offer world，Westerners living in modern times，Growing alienation from the classical world，Interest in learning about it wanes。If we say that before the end of the 18th century, people who discussed realistic topics took the initiative to appeal to classical authority，To the 20th century，Classics in turn needs to prove to society that it is a useful subject。The occurrence of the industrial revolution，The development of modern science and technology，Give birth to physics、Engineering、Agriculture and other theoretical and applied disciplines。Under the impact of multiple forces，Classics has become one of many disciplines，Even regarded as dispensable knowledge。Since the late 19th century，Many universities in Europe and the United States have gradually abandoned their admission requirements for Greek and Latin。Students registered to study Classics，The proportion is also decreasing。

In addition to the impact of real life and other disciplines，Classics itself is increasingly separated from ordinary people。Classical scholars need to be proficient in bet365 offer Greek and Latin，It discourages many students；Classical works accumulate over time，The formation of strict academic norms and increasingly higher professional barriers；As academic accumulation becomes more and more abundant，Research is becoming more and more specialized，Most works appear in the form of monographs，Full of jargon and quotes，Further widening the distance between ordinary readers and professional scholars，Shut out a considerable part of the public。

The crisis of classics，Prompting some scholars to actively seek changes。Since the 20th century，Scholars adhere to the academic rules of classics，Strive to bring classics closer to the public。First，Publishing popular readers of classical works，Like Penguin Books、Loeb Classical Series, etc.。Secondly，Learn from social science theories and methods，Ask a new question，Actively respond to social concerns。Patronage relationship、Institutional Economics、Behavioral Economics、Political Culture、Public communication theory、Postmodernism、Gender studies, etc.，They all entered the field of classical studies，Promoted the transformation of this traditional discipline。Finally，Open up new areas，One of them is the study of classical reception history。Since the 21st century，The history of classical reception or the study of classical tradition has become an important field。"New Poly Encyclopedia of Classics" 15 volumes in total，Among them, classical academic history and reception history account for 3 volumes。Blackwell's Guide to the bet365 offer World Series，Also includes the classical reception history volume，Other volumes about bet365 offer times，There is also a chapter on the history of acceptance。In addition，Outside the West，Including China in East Asia、Japan、South Korea，The rise of classics in Africa and Latin America，Also gave a strong impetus to Western classical studies，And gave Western classics an increasing international influence，Classics is no longer exclusive to Western scholars，And it became a knowledge all over the world。Although classics has lost its status as the academic foundation and crown in the West，But it is still a very important subject，And continues to provide a variety of perspectives and insights into the past and the world to the humanities, social sciences, and even film and other entertainment industries。

(The author is a professor at the School of History, Capital Normal University、Member bet365 offer 8th Discipline Review Group bet365 offer State Council、Ministry of Education’s “Changjiang Scholar” Distinguished Professor)