Bernard Williams is one of the most important sources of ideas of contemporary realist political theory。Current，The interpretation of his academic community is mainly concentrated in his criticism of liberal political philosophy，Especially legitimacy、Equality and freedom and other important political issues。But，Most of William's life is concentrated in the field of moral philosophy，How his work in the field of moral philosophy affects his political thought，This rarely gets attention。It is true，One of the main points of his criticism of political liberalism is the moralism of it，That is the moral philosophy based on political philosophy as application。But as the editor -in -chief of the Editorial of William's Political Pamentation Collection "In the Beginning Was The Deed，His work in moral philosophy has a clear application of his political philosophy。

But，Clear but does not mean direct。Williams does not treat ethics as a field of self -sufficient，The relationship between ethics and politics is by no means a unidirectional impact: ethical thought does affect politics，But the result of the modern situation like politics。Modernity issues occupy a significant position in Williams' ethical thoughts，His most concentrated discussion on this is the "Modernity and the Substance of Ethical Life"。"Ethical Substance", a concept of norms and descriptions, is a useful clue to grasp its thinking: on the one hand，The various situations of modernity bet365 live casino games bring new social and political "entities" to ethical life and thoughts; on the other hand，Some ways to understand ethical life，or the challenges that fail to accurately grasp the modernity，or I failed to grasp this challenge at all，Therefore, the "basis"。The negative side of Williams' thinking is a criticism of the portrayal of modernity and ethical thoughts，and the positive side is only a limited explanation for the normative significance of the negative criticism。This highly restrained strategy instead of the specific proposition of it，is the real uniqueness of Williams。

Williams' inspection began in a typical lack of ethical thought，What he calls "ethical nostalgia" (Ethical Nostalgia): A perfect and collaborative ethical state of the past，Criticizing the corruption of the current moral state。The most noteworthy ethics nostalgia is the ethical nostalgia as historical claims，I believe that modernity means a unique social category。It is not an isolated proposition，but a position that may be held from conservative to radical political philosophy。Actually，It does have extensively influenced the political philosophy of the 20th century。Williams mainly focuses on history to give a criticism。The meaning of history is first，Ethics Nostalgia is exactly a non -historical historical understanding method，Ethics Nostalgia itself is also a phenomenon that repeats historically。The decline and secularization of traditional authority is recognized as a recognized modernity logo，The complaint about the two is just the most common form of the traditional ethics and nostalgia。If nostalgic bet365 live casino games ethics of modernity is just criticism in the existing ethical nostalgia，So even if the former is right for the characteristics of the modern world，This criticism effect will also be greatly reduced。

William's criticism is eye -catching in history，but not staying in history，Instead, ethical nostalgia is used as a road sign that portray ethical and modern world relations。The problem of ethical nostalgia is confusing the problem and its solution: the judgment of the incompatible and ethical situation is not the comparison of things.，The two are two sides of the same position。If the understanding of the past is just projection of the current ethical situation，So it is difficult to understand the relationship between ethical thought and modern world anyway。Getting rid of this ethical nostalgia needs to avoid the substantial portrayal of the historical situation of modernity。Williams' suggestion on this portrayal is: "When thinking about ethical thoughts and modern world relations，Always start from such concepts，These concepts only include the minimum ethical commitment。”

From Williams's view，Public expansion is a basic feature of modernity。Ethical decisions in the modern world are increasingly made by public institutions based on the promulgated rules and regulations。The change that this change brings to ethical life is，Ethical demonstration has been strongly institutionalized。To a large extent，The need for ethical theory is because "this institution must be responsible for the public，You must make a decision on a major human problem at the most private level "。The expansion Bet365 app download of ethical decision and demonstration of publicity brings its political strengthening，Because "if certain issues become more and more public and clearly controlled issues，So they seem to be the appropriate concern of politics "。

The other side of the expansion of ethical publicity is，Although politics at the national level still has the primary importance，But many important ethical issues cannot be resolved at the level of a single country，The influence of multinational companies is even more broad。Public expansion to strengthen the political enhancement of ethics，The role of the country as a setting of the ethical agenda setting society is weakening。Williams believes that the two are the real problems of ethical thought in modern times: publicity means more ordinary preferences、More programmatic ethical concepts，But a platform that carries this kind of publicity needs to find another place。

The limit of ethical theory constitutes a reference for the modern situation of Williams thinking about ethical thoughts。He thinks，Ethical theory is not equal to ethical thought，It is not an example of ethical thought，It aims to give "some general detection，It can be used to determine whether the basic ethical beliefs and principles are correct "。This systematic means that the concept of preference is more "barren" (Thin)，If the concepts that include more descriptives such as "cruel" are more abstract concepts such as "good" and "bad"。Williams pointed out，Although the theoretical restoration claim is not the requirements of rationality，But it is precisely a reflection of the ethical situation of modernity: managing bet365 live casino games ethical sensitive transactions，More suitable language is abstract and general、Facing a diverse public language。Williams pointed out the basic difficulties brought about by the modern situation of ethical thoughts: feasible personal ethical requirements to a certain extent based on，and public moral issues require a considerable degree of generality。

Instead of saying that Williams gave some answers，It is better to say that he gave the direction to find this answer; instead of this direction is from philosophy，Maybe it is from politics。Modernity not only means that the original private ethics decisions becomes publicized and more political，It also means that the country does not act as the only political subject and gives the final decision on ethical issues。The real political entity is composed of a variety of "Ethical Constitue"。Ethical thought itself contains thicker and thinner levels，This means that ethical thoughts can be facing listeners in different areas。Ethical thinking really needs to face the requirements of public defense as much as possible，But it does not need to first target the most general publicity。Ethical thought as the idea of ​​"guidance and guidance of the world"，First of all, the experience of ethical voters，Only when you need to take more general management functions, you seek general defense。This arrangement of Williams means that the requirements of public defense are still existing，But the way it requires should be more flexible: public defense is necessary，But the more local (localized) practice concern is priority。Of course，If the priority of local concern means Bet365 app download the homogeneity of a ethical community without having to respond to general public defense，So this returns to the orbit of ethics and nostalgia。

Williams thinks，Philosophy belongs to "the best understanding of our life、Active activity、The situation of where is located "part of the effort。The reality of his discussion method，It is to understand specific issues from different aspects of modernity and ethical life，instead of seeking the overall as a homogeneous。This is also the reason that Williams emphasized that this portrayal needs to be "recognized by people who have different ethical attitudes to the world within a certain range" when discussing modernity.。It can be said，Historical consciousness of reflection and sensitivity to reality complexity，The key to politically understanding ethics and understanding ethics itself。

In a more general sense，Understanding Williams 'side can not only help us better understand the integrity of Williams' thoughts，And also has important reference significance to understanding Chinese ideological traditions: although Chinese thought traditions have deep and strong ethics and political care，But in terms of understanding the connection between tradition and modernity, it still constitutes a difficult challenge for it。If Williams has a desirable view of ethical basis，So on the one hand, we don't have to and not expect the general theory that guidance is given to this ethical dilemma，On the other hand, we also have no reason to think that modernity constitutes an integrated challenge。The complexity of the traditional and modern world，Itself provides Bet365 app download a possibility that these challenges to dissolve each other。

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