Dmitri M. Bondarenko）

Deputy Director bet365 bonus code indiana Institute of African Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences、Professor，Research field is cultural evolution、Political Anthropology、Contemporary cross-cultural interaction、Sub-Saharan Africa，Representative works include "The Axial Age in World History: Lessons for the 21st Century"。

Tanzania、The most important historical and cultural factors in the state-building process of Zambia and Uganda, the three post-colonial African countries, deserve in-depth discussion。Tanzania is closer to the traditional European state form than other countries in Africa，Also known as the modern European model，That is, the citizens of this country are in the same society，Have the same value system and the same national and cultural background。They think，Shared national citizenship over personal and local identities，And more loyal to the entire nation-state than to the region、Religion、Ethnic and other divisions are more important。But，Compared with Tanzania，For most post-colonial countries including Zambia and Uganda，Local identity is more important。In our opinion，This significant difference is caused by historical reasons，This has to do with their past history，That is, it is related to the particularity bet365 bonus code indiana history bet365 bonus code indiana pre-colonial and colonial periods and the interpretation of history during the independence period。

In contrast to Zambia and Uganda，In Tanzania，The social and cultural foundation rooted in the hearts bet365 bonus code indiana vast majority of people today had been formed long before the establishment bet365 bonus code indiana colonial regime，The social and cultural foundation mentioned here is Swahili culture and its written language。On this basis，Tanzanians’ national consciousness continues to deepen，Mainly reflected in almost all native people。For Tanzanians，Swahili culture and its language are the source and foundation bet365 bonus code indiana Tanzanian nation，So in their concept，The formation bet365 bonus code indiana Tanzanian nation is not due to Europeans and European colonialism。In fact，The Swahili people in the coastal areas still belong to a small group，Their culture and language did not become widespread until the 19th century，This is an undeniable historical fact。In addition，The reason why Swahili culture and language can spread，European missionaries also contributed，They often preach in Swahili，And use Swahili as the language of instruction in mission schools。In addition，Swahili culture and Swahili language absorb many medieval and modern Arabic elements。However，A large portion of Tanzanians today，Regardless of origin and religious belief，They are all proud to consider themselves the inheritors of Swahili culture，Think it is native、Purely African，Has nothing to do with colonial legacy，And thus advocates that each local "tribe" should put citizen identity above local identity (rather than abandon local identity)，United as a Tanzanian nation。Swahili culture is not only the basis for the formation bet365 bonus code indiana Tanzanian nation，It also became a means of nation-building for the government of Tanzania in the years after its independence。Its official ideology is based on the “Ujamaa Theory” proposed by the country’s first president, Julius Nyerere。This has greatly deepened the public’s understanding bet365 bonus code indiana formation and origin bet365 bonus code indiana Tanzanian nation，Instead of seeing it as a legacy of colonialism。This language policy, which is directly linked to the national ideology, consolidates Swahili’s status as the official language，The implementation of this policy has also allowed its citizens to gradually awaken to the beliefs formed during the Tanzanian nation’s long-term pursuit of independence。Indigenous Swahili language and Swahili culture have existed since pre-colonial times，In the early colonial period, it began to spread throughout the country，This also makes Tanzania that lucky exception。

However，Same as most post-colonial countries, especially African countries，Zambia、Uganda has no similar cornerstone of national unity，They lack regional culture that can play a similar role。The integration of modern Zambian and Ugandan ethnic groups began during the colonial period，The result bet365 bonus code indiana influence of colonialism。Same，The history and cultural foundation bet365 bonus code indiana Zambian and Ugandan nations can only be regarded as the social and cultural heritage of colonialism，Including the language bet365 bonus code indiana former colonial power - English。Many respondents from these countries said，People living here have similar cultures and traditions，Speaking a similar language；etc.。However，None of them would say that we all have the same local culture，Not like Tanzanians，People from different ethnic groups consider themselves to be the inheritors of Swahili culture，And the vast majority of Tanzanian respondents feel that the Tanzanian nation can be regarded as a single nation，Most respondents in Zambia and Uganda believe that their countries are made up of many ethnic groups with different languages ​​and cultures。In this category of countries，The government must first unite people，Secondly, it is necessary to strengthen the weak awareness of cultural unity，This awareness only began to appear within the original colonies，And it is based on the language bet365 bonus code indiana original colonial power。So from a nation-building perspective，Zambia and Uganda have one more constraint than Tanzania。In the pre-colonial period，Except the Kingdom of Shambhaha，A centralized expansionist political form has not developed in the territory of Tanganyika, mainland Tanzania。If more such political forms appear，Then it may become tribalism in the post-colonial period、Center of ethnic regionalism or separatism，And awaken the historical memory bet365 bonus code indiana surrounding ethnic groups about the oppression they suffered from the ancestors bet365 bonus code indiana people who are now their compatriots during the period of separatist struggle。In Tanzania，The resistance bet365 bonus code indiana relatively weak chiefs was easily suppressed at the beginning bet365 bonus code indiana country’s independence，So they are not considered to be representatives of forces opposed to national construction。At the same time，In Zambia，At least four such regimes arose in the pre-colonial period，i.e. Bemba、Barotse、Runda and Chuva。Especially after the declaration of independence，The leaders of Bemba and Barotse both sought to ensure their people's political dominance in the country。Zambia’s first president Kenneth Kaunda made a lot of efforts to gain an advantage，These include repressive measures and the allocation of high-level government positions。However，As the country transitioned to a multi-party system in the 1990s，Ethnic issues emerge again，The country has several political parties based on ethnicity。

Another projection of Zambia’s precolonial past onto postcolonial modernity，It is about granting autonomy to the Barotse region，The former Kingdom of Barotse has always been a major concern for the government in the early days bet365 bonus code indiana country。Since 1962，Tanzania law no longer recognizes the power of chiefs，This even goes back to before the unification of Tanganyika and Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanzania。But the 1996 Zambian Constitution announced the re-establishment bet365 bonus code indiana House of Chiefs, the national parliament that had been abolished by Kaunda。As one bet365 bonus code indiana members said，The House of Chiefs is trying to influence all areas of public and political life in the country，Whether it is at the regional or national level，Even if the privileges granted are limited to so-called "traditional issues"，Village chiefs and district chiefs are also very influential figures within their abilities。Give an example，When mining companies or even large multinationals intend to develop on land controlled by chiefs，It is inevitable to pass them。And in Uganda，Just before Britain declared the country its protectorate，There are still four kingdoms that control the political situation in various places，The Kingdom of Buganda, the most powerful Ganda people respectively、Banyoro Kingdom bet365 bonus code indiana Nyoro people、The Ankole Kingdom bet365 bonus code indiana Nyangole people and the Toro Kingdom bet365 bonus code indiana Toro people。Although many respondents in these countries expressed sincere opinions，Proud to be a Ugandan，And the identity of Ugandans is very important to them，But almost everyone will emphasize their ethnic group。This is especially true for the Ganda people，Many of them consider the Ganda to be the central ethnic group of Ugandans，Regardless of region、Politics、Historical or cultural perspective，This is the case。It is even said that the Ganda people created the civilization of other tribes in modern Uganda，It is they who have inherited Ugandan culture and civilization。President Apollo Obote abolished traditional regulations in the first year after overthrowing the country’s former president，At the same time，Also deposed King Edward Mutesa II of Uganda in 1966。Idi Amin, who later succeeded Obote, also refused to resume royal power。But，Current President Yoweri Museveni officially announced the restoration of royal power shortly after taking power in 1986，Many people of different levels of power coexist in Uganda，The King of Uganda is the most influential national power holder。

Another important cultural factor that affects the formation of a nation is the country’s religious status，And its characteristics are also rooted in Africa’s pre-colonial and colonial history。Overall，The situations in these three countries are different。Even if the so-called "traditional" religions in the three countries are local religions，Can also be Christian、Replaced by world religions such as Islam，Then it only exists in the form of dual faith in some remote areas。At the same time，Both Christianity and Islam have many branches, large and small。In Tanzania，As early as European colonialism brought Catholicism、Before Christianity was dominated by Lutheranism and Anglicanism，Islam already has its place。The current number of Christians and Muslims in Tanzania，There is no authoritative conclusion，Because the country prohibits officials from counting religious beliefs in the census。But Christians and Muslims account for about 60% and 35% bet365 bonus code indiana country’s population。Although the situation is getting increasingly tense，But in Tanzania，Relationships between Muslims and Christians remain quite harmonious。In terms of reasons，On the one hand，Government policy is a major reason，Back when the country first declared independence，Promote his irreligious stance，Officially no religious groups will be given priority。On the other hand，Tanzania’s socio-cultural characteristics are also a reason。First，All religions in Tanzania、In social classes and ethnic groups，Family ties still play a major role to this day，Although everyone has both Christian and Muslim relatives。Secondly，It is also affected by the first reason，There is no distinction between Muslims and Christians in the mainland of Tanzania，These two beliefs coexist in almost all ethnic groups。Finally，The special socio-cultural attribute of family further promotes the integration of Muslims and Christians into the Tanzanian nation，And this is what most citizens of Swahili culture with different religious beliefs have in common，And this country was formed on the basis of this culture。

In Uganda，Islam also appeared before Christianity，Although still later than its appearance in Tanzania，But，Today，Catholic、Christians, mainly Anglicans and Pentecostals, far outnumber Muslims，Accounting for 85% bet365 bonus code indiana total population。Based on 2014 Census，The proportion of Muslims in the country is very low，Only 14%。Our fieldwork research shows，The relationship between Christians and Muslims in Uganda is also very delicate。However，Same as in Tanzania，They are also relatively harmonious。Uganda’s religious policy is different from Tanzania，During the Nyerere administration，Tanzania refuses to favor any religion；Under Museveni，Interfaith committee established in Uganda，It’s just that the committee does not cover all denominations in the country，Therefore, joining the committee means that the religious organization has obtained the status of official national certification and support，This policy reflects the fact that Ugandans are less integrated into the country than Tanzanians，And exacerbated their divisions over religion。

Compared with Tanzania and Uganda，Christians in Zambia account for 96% bet365 bonus code indiana total population。In view of this，1991-2002，The then President Frederick Chiluba directly called Zambia a "Christian country"，Seeking to achieve national unity based on religion。1996，The country also incorporated the provisions of Zambia as a Christian country into the country’s current new constitution。At the same time，Chiluba’s overconfidence in Pentecostal evangelists has also already caused concern among Anglicans、Presbyterian、Strong dissatisfaction among Catholics and other branches，This has long been a deep-rooted problem in Zambia。Proof of fact，Different denominations in Zambia have different views on this so-called "Christian country"，And their respective leaders also launched fierce political struggles。Therefore，The diversity of religious identities does not, at least today, prevent Tanzania from forming a unified national identity，But it does not help Uganda to form a unified national identity，Zambia’s attempts to establish a Christian country have not yet been successful。

So our point and main argument is，Judging from the results，Tanzania、The differences in national construction between Zambia and Uganda，It is caused by the huge difference in their history in the pre-colonial and colonial periods and the degree of reliance and utilization of history during the independence period。If we look at post-colonial countries as a whole，You must pay attention to something，That’s most of them，Especially African countries，Neither has a unified local culture and language like the Swahili culture of Tanzania。Greater advantages due to historical background，Today’s Tanzania would be closer to a country adequate to Western modernity than Zambia or Uganda。Based on European historical experience，We can see，Tanzania has better prospects for nation-building。But，In the long run，In the context bet365 bonus code indiana rise of multiculturalism，And in the context of a major shift in the perception bet365 bonus code indiana social reality of a modern country，We cannot jump to conclusions，Despite their obvious limitations including nationalism。But if we want to build a multicultural country，Zambia and Uganda may have equally favorable positions，Maybe they can build a stronger post-colonial state than Tanzania。In postcolonial countries，The task of building a modern country according to the model of modern European countries has been put forward，Even though they face huge construction problems。In other words，If Zambia、The nation-building of Uganda and most post-colonial countries is not based on a single comprehensive culture，But built in the context of multiculturalism，Then，Compared with Tanzania，Is their development prospects in the current global situation not clear enough？In addition，In countries such as Zambia and Uganda，The main dividing line lies in the cultural differences between the various indigenous ethnic groups that make up the vast majority bet365 bonus code indiana local population，The cultural differences between them are not as significant as those between indigenous groups and many immigrant groups，In modern Western countries，The differences between the two constitute the main cultural contradiction。Now，There is no fixed answer to our questions，This is because the future of Western multiculturalism is also unknown。But anyway，It’s time we asked this question。