The area covered by the study of Bet365 app download teaching is very broad，includes literature、History、Philosophy、image、Culture、Society and other aspects，Philology is the fundamental discipline in all these fields of study，And the Indian scriptures are the basis of this foundation。Buddhism has been introduced into my country for more than 2,000 years，Ancient translators and Bet365 app download monks came one after another，Translate a large number of Indian Bet365 app download scriptures into Chinese、Tibetan and some other ethnic languages，The most famous translation system handed down。The accumulation of these translations has created the Bet365 app download system in the Chinese local context，As a result, Bet365 app download culture gradually integrated into traditional Chinese culture。And behind these translations，Linked to an original level。

Buddhism was born in the Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BC，By the beginning of the 13th century AD, it had withdrawn from the stage of history at its home court。In the meantime，The sayings of the Buddha were passed down orally among various sects of the Sangha to be written down in collections，And then spread on a large scale，At the same time, he also created and produced a large number of Bet365 app download literature on various themes，Created the complex and diverse appearance of Bet365 app download original texts。

The language used in the original Bet365 app download texts that have been handed down to this day，In addition to the Sanskrit we are familiar with、Mixed Sanskrit，There are also popular sayings across India。These languages ​​belong to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family。According to research，The language spoken by the ancestors who lived in the southern Russian steppe area between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea in Europe around 4000 BC was Proto-Indo-European，In the following thousands of years, the language migrated and developed along the east and west directions，The westward branch evolved Greek、Latin and most languages ​​of modern Europe；The East Branch enters Iran，And further eastward，Developed into Sanskrit in India around 1500 BC，Preserved through the recitation of the Vedas，Also known as Vedic Sanskrit，It is one of the oldest living Indo-European languages。About 5th century BC，Classical Sanskrit was formed on the basis of Vedic Sanskrit，Becoming a common "elegant language" among the Indian intelligentsia，This is what is now commonly known as Sanskrit。In the Middle Ages，A variety of dialects and slang have evolved in various parts of India，For example, the Pali and Gandhara languages ​​used in Bet365 app download scriptures fall into the category of common languages。

Buddhism belongs to the Samana camp that opposes mainstream Brahmanism。The beginning of birth，In order to distinguish it from the Sanskrit classic system of Brahmanism，Buddhism mainly uses common sayings to transmit and record classics。Centuries later，With the rise of Buddhism’s social status，Some sects and Mahayana Buddhism began to use hybrid Sanskrit (Sanskrit mixed with colloquial grammatical elements) and classical Sanskrit to record scriptures，A large number of Bet365 app download commentators also wrote books and theories in the "academic language" of classical Sanskrit。

There was no paper in India at first，The writing material is mostly palm leaves，Cut the leaves into long strips along the veins，Horizontal ink writing or stylus writing，Punch holes in the leaves and string them for binding，Plints can be placed on both sides，Called "Fanjia"。In the northwest, areas where palm trees do not grow，Birch bark is also often used as a writing material，Birch bark has a softer texture，The manuscript was initially in the form of a scroll，Later also imitated the long strip shape of palm leaves。Even after the paper comes in，Indian paper manuscripts still follow the Sanskrit folder form。The Chinese-speaking world refers to this form of Bet365 app download manuscripts as the "Baye Sutra"。The full name of "Baye" is "Bedoroye"，is Sanskrit pattra (leaf、A combination of transliteration and free translation of the word "document"。The vast number of original Bet365 app download scriptures are handed down in the form of this Bay-leaf Sutra。

　　Pali Bet365 app download scriptures

When Buddhism was at its peak, it could compete with Brahmanism，But it eventually declined and died in the Indian subcontinent in the 13th century，Bet365 app download classics subsequently suffered a disaster，And there is a lucky exception。The Pali Tipitaka taught by Ceylon Theravada，It spread to Southeast Asia via the Island of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) next to the Indian subcontinent，Saved completely to this day。Pali Buddhism is also the only form of Buddhism in the world that is still passed down in the original language。

Pali is a kind of ancient Indian common language，According to Theravada Autobiography，The Pali Tripitaka was formed in the first Bet365 app download gathering，The language used is the mother tongue of the Buddha，i.e. Magadha language in eastern India。However, most academic circles believe that，Pali is probably a literary language based on a western dialect，Not all Pali Bet365 app download scriptures were formed in the first collection。However, it is undeniable，Pali Bet365 app download scriptures，Also includes the Gandhara Bet365 app download scriptures mentioned below，This is the earliest transmission of Buddha’s teachings that we can see today，The Pali literature is the largest among them，Therefore, it has always been valued by Bet365 app download researchers and practitioners。

Indian languages ​​are all written in phonetic script，The same language can be "equivalently converted" between multiple different scripts。In the process of the spread of Buddhism to the south，Pali was once spoken in Sinhala、Myanmar、Khmer、Written in Thai and other alphabets，There is no exclusive calligraphy style，In modern times, the Latin alphabet has been the most popular transliteration。The Pali Sacred Society was founded in London in 1881 after a hundred years of hard work，Completed the revision of the Latin transliteration of the Pali Tripitaka based on the Pali Bayeux Sutra。There are almost no Bet365 app download scriptures translated from Pali in ancient China。2009，The Institute of Sanskrit Bayiye Sutra and Bet365 app download Literature of Peking University and Dhammakāya University in Thailand signed a letter of intent for cooperation，Start Peking University-Dharma Sheng Pali Bet365 app download Canon Chinese Translation Project，Started the systematic Chinese translation of Pali Bet365 app download scriptures in my country，At present, "Long Department" and "Central Department" have been published。

　　Other Bet365 app download scriptures

Outside the Pali Bet365 app download scriptures，Bet365 app download manuscripts in other languages ​​do not have this luck，Almost disappeared in India。Since modern times，Bet365 app download scholars search for traces of manuscripts on the fringes of the Indian cultural circle，Committed to restoring and reconstructing the original Bet365 app download text system，New discoveries during this period continue to refresh modern people’s understanding。

More than a hundred years ago，In Pakistan、Afghanistan and my country’s Xinjiang region have successively unearthed Kharosthi characters (Kharosthi，referred to as "Khalu script") is a fragment of a Bet365 app download scripture copied on birch bark，Scholars have deciphered this language that has been extinct for thousands of years，Discovered that this is a Northwest Indian slang，With its center in Gandhara，Today’s Peshawar, Pakistan) and named it Gandhari。Gandhara was once a center of Bet365 app download scholarship，Produced Gandhara Bet365 app download art that was deeply influenced by Greek style。The Gandhara manuscript contains the Hinayana classics passed down by the Dharmakapapa，There are also early Mahayana classics，The earliest copying date is about the 1st century AD，It is the oldest existing original Bet365 app download manuscript in the world。

Just more than ten years ago，Our understanding of early Bet365 app download scriptures has been updated again。A number of manuscripts of common sayings passed down by the Samajāra Samajāra in northwest India have come into the attention of researchers，The language is named "Saindhavi"，The writing features are distinctive，Called "faith article"，Also known as "arrow body"。This is a hot topic in the current Bet365 app download community，Relevant research is still in progress。

　　Sanskrit Bet365 app download scriptures

The above except Pali Tipitaka，Several other common sayings and Bet365 app download scriptures are very rare in existence。And it accounts for the largest proportion in the original Bet365 app download scriptures，At the same time, it is also most closely related to the Chinese translation and Tibetan translation of Bet365 app download scriptures in our country，It is a Sanskrit Bet365 app download scripture，This is also the most effective part of the modern academic community’s reconstruction of the original Bet365 app download scriptures。

Sanskrit is the main carrier of Indian classical civilization，There is a lot of literature、Philosophy、Religion、Society and even medical prescription、Astronomy、Mathematics、Ancient Sanskrit classics in music and other fields have been handed down to this day。However, due to the demise of Buddhism，It is already difficult to find Bet365 app download Sanskrit manuscripts in India。Nearly more than a century，A considerable number of Sanskrit manuscripts have been found in the surrounding areas of India and in Xinjiang and Tibet in my country，Set off research booms in the international academic community again and again，Provides the driving force for the development of Buddhism。Over a long period of time，There are few Chinese people in the trend of manuscript research，This is extremely inconsistent with the history of cultural exchanges between China and India for more than two thousand years and the huge collection of manuscripts in our country。The good news is，Since the new century，The study of Sanskrit manuscripts has received attention from domestic academic circles，A number of academic achievements have emerged that have attracted international attention。

Existing manuscripts of Bet365 app download scriptures in Sanskrit，Also known as "Sanskrit Baye Sutra"，Mainly Nepal、Central Asia and Xinjiang, my country、Four major sources of Tibet，Historically, Han Dynasty also imported a large number of Sanskrit texts，But unfortunately, almost all of these manuscripts have been lost。

Bet365 app download Sanskrit manuscripts preserved in Nepal，Constitutes the main body of existing Sanskrit Bet365 app download scriptures。Since the 19th century，Western scholars have discovered a large number of Sanskrit Bet365 app download manuscripts here，1970s，Germany and Nepal cooperate to take photos of manuscripts、Organization、Cataloging work，More than 180,000 documents were photographed and compiled，The photos are currently open to international scholars。Except Sanskrit Bet365 app download scriptures，These manuscripts also contain a large number of non-Bet365 app download texts as well as Nepali、Hindi、Tibetan and other non-Sanskrit literature。These documents were copied relatively late，Generally no earlier than the 9th century，Mostly after the 12th century。

The Sanskrit manuscripts unearthed in Central Asia are of earlier date，But the number is far less than that of Nepalese manuscripts。This part of the manuscript is mainly from northern Pakistan and Afghanistan，That is, "Gandhara Cultural Circle"。1930s，Hundreds of Bet365 app download Sanskrit manuscripts written between the 6th and 9th centuries were discovered in a stupa in Gilgit, Pakistan-occupied Kashmir，Most of them have now been published as photos or edited copies。The Sanskrit fragments unearthed in Afghanistan are relatively fragmented，But the copying date is earlier，Earliest 2、Things from the 3rd century，Shao Geyan Collection mainly collected in Norway，It has been published one after another in recent years。Hundreds of Sanskrit manuscripts dating from the 7th century were newly unearthed in Mes Aynak, Afghanistan a few years ago，Relevant research on this in our country’s academic community is currently underway。

The Xinjiang region of my country was a region where Buddhism flourished in ancient times，There are a large number of Bet365 app download scriptures buried under the sea of ​​sand。Late 19th and early 20th centuries，Expeditions from various countries seized a large number of Sanskrit manuscripts in Xinjiang，Mainly broken leaves and fragments，There are few complete ones，Mostly copied from the 6th to 8th centuries，Now stored in England、法、Germany、Russia、Japan and other countries，Most of them have been announced to the academic community。After the founding of New China，Remnants of Sanskrit leaves are still being unearthed in Xinjiang，Mainly collected in the National Library of China、Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Museum、Peking University Sackler Museum of Archeology and Art and Renmin University of China Museum。Relevant research results from Peking University and Renmin University of China have been published。

The Tibet region of my country is probably the last untapped Sanskrit treasure house in the world。For those Bet365 app download texts whose original Sanskrit texts have not yet been discovered，This is the last hope，Thus attracting great attention。The Sanskrit Bay-leaf Sutra collected in Tibet was copied relatively late，Mostly from the 10th to 13th centuries，But it is large and well preserved。1930s and 1940s，Indian monk Rahula (，1893-1963) and Italian scholar Giuseppe Tucci，1894-1984) visited Tibet respectively，At Shalu Temple、Er Temple、A large number of Bet365 app download texts were found in Sakya Temple and other places，The photos of the manuscripts they brought back set off an upsurge in Bet365 app download research in the international academic community，There are dozens of revised editions published on this basis。

Chinese scholars began to systematically investigate the Sanskrit Bay-leaf Sutra existing in Tibet in the 1960s。1961，259 letters from the Sanskrit manuscripts collected in the Potala Palace were transferred to the Library of the Palace of Nationalities and Culture in Beijing，Most of these manuscripts were originally stored in Xialu Temple。Mr. Wang Sen compiled a summary for this batch of manuscripts。These manuscripts were shipped back to Tibet in 1993，Existing in Tibet Museum in Lhasa。The Institute of Sanskrit Bayiye Sutra and Bet365 app download Literature of Peking University holds the microfilm of this batch of manuscripts，A series of research results have been published based on it。Another part of the Tibetan Sanskrit Baye Sutra has been preserved in various monasteries in Tibet。In 1983, Mr. Luo Zheng (1943- ) went to Tibet to investigate and catalog these manuscripts，Complete four catalog manuscripts by 1985，A total of more than 600 letters were written in this book，Huge quantity，And most of them are discovered and disclosed for the first time。After Luo Zheng’s catalog spread to Western academic circles，Cause great attention。From 2005，China Tibetology Research Center cooperates with the Austrian Academy of Sciences to collate these manuscripts，More than 20 research monographs have been published so far。2006，The Party Committee of the Tibet Autonomous Region has specially established a leading group for the protection of Beiye Monastery in the Autonomous Region，After years of census and investigation、Catalogue photocopy，Until March 2011，Photocopied almost all the Sanskrit Bay-leaf Sutras collected throughout Tibet，Printed 61 volumes of "Collection of Photocopies of the Tibet Autonomous Region's Collection of Bay-leaf Sutras" (unpublished)。2013，Beiye Sutra Research Institute of Tibet Academy of Social Sciences was established，The journal "Tibetan Beiye Sutra Research" has been published since 2014，A batch of manuscript research results have been published one after another。

The Pali Tripitaka in Bet365 app download Studies、Chinese Tripitaka、The concept of integration of Tibetan Tripitaka and other documents，But there has never been the concept of "Sanskrit Tripitaka"，Instead is a bibliography that is constantly being updated and continued，The Sanskrit Baye Sutra that records the discovery of a certain classic by a certain scholar，In what year and where was it revised and published。After several generations of scholars’ research relay，The text system of the original Bet365 app download Sanskrit scriptures has been restored to a large extent，Made many historical documents about Buddhism、The study of intellectual history can be traced back to its roots，Don’t be trapped by the translation barrier。

Studying the Bayeux Scripture is a hard job，It takes a lot of effort to find the manuscript，Damage must be overcome during the editing and finishing process、Copy error、Difficulties such as font differences and even blurry photos，Encountered a fragmentary copy with no beginning or tail and no title，It is necessary to compare a large number of documents to determine the attribution of their content。The significance of this work is irreplaceable，Every time a new manuscript is transcribed、Organization、Collation、Posted，It is the return Bet365 app download original text of a long-lost sage's work to the common memory of mankind；The return of every original document，It will provide new support and germination points for research in multiple fields。

　　(The author is a permanent associate professor at the School of Foreign Bet365 app download, Peking University)