Prefer，formerly known as Li Xianzhi，People from Liuyang, Hunan，Famous Marxist historian。Born in Shanghai on December 5, 1928。1932-1934，He followed his grandfather to live in Klang, a port city in Malaysia，Attended Chinese Girls’ School in Klang。After returning to China in 1935，At Santiaoxiang Primary School in Nanjing、Study at Shanxi Road Primary School and Gulou Primary School。After the outbreak nj bet365 Anti-Japanese War，He completed his primary and secondary education while living on the move。Students at Changsha Chuyi Primary School、Changsha Huanghua City Primary School、Changsha Shaping County Fourth Senior Primary School、Guiyang Zhengyi Primary School、Guiyang Shangjietang Primary School、Guiyang Central University Experimental Middle School、Luoyang Private Mingde Middle School、Provincial Luoyang Middle School and Chongqing Private Nankai Middle School。Admitted to the preparatory class nj bet365 History Department of Peking University in 1946，Officially enrolled in this department the following year。November 1948，Entering the Liberated Area from Peiping，Received training from the "Urban Cadre Training Course" nj bet365 Urban Work Department nj bet365 North China Bureau nj bet365 Communist Party of China。Due to the needs of revolutionary work，Change your name to Ningke。After the peaceful liberation of Peiping，Entered the city on February 5, 1949，Working in the Working Committee of Dongsi District, Beijing，Served as district director of culture and education。1952，Transferred to the Beijing Municipal Education Bureau's "Teachers Monthly" editor and leader nj bet365 middle school team。Entered Teacher Training College in 1953，Teaching researcher。In September 1954, he was appointed to participate in the preparation nj bet365 Beijing Normal University and the History Department,After that, he worked in Beijing Normal University (renamed Capital Normal University in 1992) for a long time，Previous lecturers、Associate Professor、Professor、Doctoral Supervisor，Also serves as the deputy director nj bet365 school library、Deputy Head nj bet365 Department of History、Department nj bet365 first deputy secretary nj bet365 general branch、Acting Department Head、Deputy Editor-in-Chief of "Journal of Beijing Normal University" and other party and government leadership work。

Ning Ke’s main academic part-time job is the vice president nj bet365 Beijing Historical Society、Director nj bet365 Chinese History Society、Vice President and Secretary General of China Dunhuang Turpan Society，And served as Peking University、Part-time professor at Lanzhou University and other universities。February 18, 2014，Died in Beijing，Died at 86 years old。

Rather be a famous Marxist historian、Outstanding Educator。He studied in the History Department of Peking University in his early years。November 1948，Entering the Liberated Area from Peiping，Officially participate in revolutionary work。Joined the Communist Party of China in July 1953。In 1954, he was appointed to participate in the planning and establishment of Beijing Normal University (the predecessor of today’s Capital Normal University) and the History Department。Previous lecturers in the Department of History、Associate Professor、Professor、Doctoral Supervisor，And has served in multiple department-level party and government leadership positions，Former director of Beijing Historical Society、Vice President，Director nj bet365 Chinese History Society，Executive Director of China Tang History Society，Executive Director, Vice President and Secretary General of China Dunhuang Turpan Society and other social part-time jobs。

Mr. Ning is very talented，Love reading since childhood，Wide interests，博文强记，Has profound knowledge accumulation。While in college，He came into contact with Marxism。After entering the field of historical research，He studied a lot of works by classic Marxist writers。Long-term reading and thinking have given him profound theoretical literacy，The basic principles and methods of Marxism became his understanding of historical issues、The most important scientific theory that analyzes historical phenomena。His application of Marxist theory，It never just stops at the level of quoting classic writers，Instead, we advocate integration，That is, on the premise of truly and thoroughly understanding Marxist materialism and dialectics，Use the Marxist view of nj bet365、Epistemology and methodology，In-depth and specific analysis and interpretation of Chinese historical issues，Strive to grasp historical phenomena and essence from a theoretical perspective，Analyze the causal relationship of historical things from a macro perspective。This makes his research results often highly theoretical and speculative。This characteristic runs through his historical theory、Ancient Chinese economic nj bet365 and cultural nj bet365、Long-term historical research practice in many fields such as Dunhuang studies, Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties nj bet365。His research includes abstract speculative analysis of macro-theoretical issues，There are also in-depth and solid research on micro-historical details。Many of his theses and conclusions，Not only was it valued by the academic community at that time，And it still has extremely high academic value and theoretical significance。

I would rather not only consciously guide my own research work with Marxist theory，And it also attaches great importance to cultivating the Marxist theoretical literacy of graduate students。He requires his graduate students to read "Das Kapital" and other works by several Marxist classic writers，We also specially hired someone to teach "Das Kapital" to the first few graduate students for an entire academic year。later became a practice: a graduate student majoring in ancient Chinese nj bet365 in the nj bet365 Department of Beijing Normal University，Be sure to take the "Selected Readings of Marxist Classics" offered by this department。Until old age，Mr. Ning also often teaches his students: “When studying, you must pay attention to theory，You must have some theoretical cultivation。Of course there are various theories，The most basic thing is the basic theory of Marxism，Especially the method of researching problems。”（Ren Shiying、Liu Yufeng "Many Heads Advance in the Field of nj bet365 - Interviews with Rather"，"Chinese Cultural Studies" Spring 2012 Volume，Hereinafter referred to as "Interview")

　First introduction to nj bet365

Rather before graduating from high school，Has been attending primary and secondary schools in large and medium-sized cities in the Kuomintang-controlled area，No opportunity to come into contact with books and periodicals that promote Marxism。1946，He was admitted to the preparatory course nj bet365 History Department of Peking University，Come to Peking from Chongqing to study。At that time，It is the great turning point in Chinese history、A time when the trends nj bet365 times are surging。The reaction nj bet365 Kuomintang government、The harshness of spy rule、Atrocities committed by US troops stationed in China，Making all students with a sense of justice toward the light、Strive for progress。I would rather have it then，From an ignorant boy who doesn’t understand the world，Grow into a promising young man who begins to choose his own path in life。

According to Mr. Ning’s later recollection: “I heard and witnessed the corruption nj bet365 Kuomintang，Also participated in the student movement and read some progressive books and periodicals，Emotion also forms my world view rationally、View of life、Values，Gradually guide me to embark on the road of revolution。”(Ning Ke is the author of "Fleeting Memories"，Beijing Normal University Press 2015 edition) during that period，Only Marx's "Das Kapital" Volume 1，He read Hou Wailu and Wang Sihua respectively、Wang Yanan and Guo Dali、Three different translations by Guo Moruo and others。Also，There is also Wu Liping's translation of "Anti-Du Lin"、Di Cigen's "The Logic of Dialectics"、Mao Zedong's "On New Democracy" and "A Concise Tutorial on the History nj bet365 Allied Communist Party (Bolsheviks)", etc.，Read the chapter "Dialectical Materialism and Historical Materialism" in particular。He carefully read "Compendium of General History of China" by Fan Wenlan and others、Jian Bozan's "Outline of Chinese History"，And made careful annotations on these two books。He also read other Marxist historian Guo Moruo、Hou Wailu、Lu Zhenyu、Works by Hu Sheng and others。It can be said，It was during these two years that I concentrated on studying and absorbing Marxist historical perspectives，Zhi Ning has a strong interest in history，And began to get a glimpse of some ways to study history and govern history。

Under the influence of progressive ideas，Ning Ke participated in almost all the student movements against the Kuomintang rule that took place in Peking in those two years。On-campus Student Government Association Election，Work-study，Fight against reactionary students，Singing、Drama performances and other activities，He is an active participant。These student activities，The CCP’s underground party and its peripheral organizations have played an important leadership role。To November 1948，As agents arrest progressive students, the danger intensifies，I would rather be under organizational arrangements，With several other progressive students，Disguising identity from Peiping，Sneak across the blockade，Arrived at Bo Town (now in Cangzhou City, Hebei Province), where the Urban Work Department nj bet365 North China Bureau nj bet365 Communist Party of China was stationed，Enter the "Urban Cadre Training Course"，Officially participate in the revolutionary work in the liberated areas。Due to the needs of revolutionary work，He changed his name to Ning Ke。

December 1948，Ning’s training class is responsible for preparing for the takeover of Pingjin。After the peaceful liberation of Peiping，February 5, 1949，He entered the city with the troops，Worked at the then Peking Third District Working Committee，Served as District Office Section Chief。Catch the spy、Exchange gold coupons、Register stragglers、Placement of unemployed persons and other work，I’d rather do it all if I’m in my early twenties。Later served as deputy section chief of district culture and education，Actively carry out social education，Organizing literacy classes，Opening a cultural center, etc.，Preach the party’s policies to the masses。1952，Transferred from the district to the Beijing Municipal Education Bureau，Served as editor of "Teachers Monthly" and leader nj bet365 middle school group。Entered Teacher Training College in 1953，Teaching researcher。September 1954 to September 1955，Ordered to prepare for the establishment of Beijing Normal University，Appointed as History Lecturer，Also Deputy Director nj bet365 Library。From now on，He has been working in a university，Achieved the transformation from intellectual revolutionary cadre to university teacher、The role change of experts and scholars。

　　Theoretical exploration of Marxist nj bet365

Mr. Ning published academic papers on ancient astronomy as early as when he was in high school，But we really began to conduct historical research guided by Marxism，It started with two papers on the economic nj bet365 of ancient China published in 1958 on the mediocrity of renting in the Tang Dynasty and the polders in the Song Dynasty。Mr. Ning said: "Why do you want to engage in economic nj bet365?"？This is the inspiration and guidance for me from the basic principles of Marxism。Economy、Production is the foundation，Many problems are ultimately caused by the economy、Decided by production。Fundamentally，The economic foundation comes first。So，I pay more attention to social and economic issues，Pay attention to the research on the nj bet365 of economic development，Want to learn more about other issues by studying economic nj bet365，To grasp the characteristics and laws of China’s historical development。”(“Interview”)

thereafter，Mr. Ning has directly participated in many discussions on many important hot theoretical issues in the field of history，And put forward unique opinions，Some eventually became the consensus nj bet365 academic community。For example，1950s，He concentrated on the issue of peasant war，It is necessary to pass the point of peasant war，Observe how various social conflicts continue to develop and intensify，And eventually broke out in the form of peasant war。In this way, changes in various social contradictions in a society can be analyzed，Especially understand the changes in social and economic aspects。In this regard，He has discussed theoretical issues such as "peasant political power", "imperialism in peasant wars", and "the spontaneity and consciousness of peasant wars"，There were also peasant uprisings in the Jiangnan area in the early Tang Dynasty、Wang Xianzhi、Huang Chao、Shang Rang、In-depth research on specific historical figures and events such as the relationship between Zhang Lu’s regime and society in the late Han Dynasty。He successively discussed whether the peasant war could establish a "peasant power"、Does the Peasant War have the nature of "imperialism"、The spontaneity and consciousness of peasant war、The historical role nj bet365 Peasants’ War，And how to properly understand and evaluate the landlord class’s “concession policy” towards farmers and other hot issues with different understandings，expressed his own opinion。His opinion，Existing theoretical basis，There is also historical evidence，Being in a high position，Objective and fair，Settled the academic debate on the above issues with great persuasion。Conclusions on some issues，It is still admired by the academic community。

1960s，Mr. Ning participated in the discussion of "Historicism and Class Perspectives"。This is a theoretical debate related to the basic epistemology and methodology of Marxist history。When the historians at that time used Marxist theory to conduct historical research，There is a theoretical understanding，That is, taking the "class perspective" as the primary or main method and theory when analyzing historical issues，Making the “class perspective” one-sided and absolute。Mr. Ning looks for the basic discussion of "historicism" from the works of classic writers such as Marx and Engels，Discovered that Marx never mentioned "historicism" at all，Only mentioned occasionally in the works of Lenin and Mao Zedong，And there is no discussion。Based on his own experience of reading Marxist classics，Published two long articles，Proposing that the class perspective is the core nj bet365 materialist view of history，Historicism is the dialectical understanding nj bet365 historical process；Historicism cannot be separated from class perspective、Start against each other，Or treat it as two unrelated things，Or find a balance between the two。We cannot simply equate the two，Mechanically believe that as long as there is a class perspective，It must be consistent with historicism。The two concepts of historicism and class perspective have different emphases，Historicism focuses on looking at problems from the perspective of development，The class perspective focuses on scientific explanations of historical issues based on class divisions and the laws of class struggle。Historicism and class perspective are two principles or methods for understanding the unified historical process from different perspectives。After these two articles were published，Great response。At that time, many people didn’t know who “Ning Ke” was，I thought it was a pseudonym used by a very senior Marxist historian。After reform and opening up，In view nj bet365 differences in academic circles’ understanding of historical scientific theories，He proposed that "historical scientific theory" should be distinguished from "historical theory"。This view clarifies the fundamental conceptual issues in the construction of historical theory discipline，It has become a consensus among historians。

Mr. Ning also published discussions on other important theoretical issues that will guide future research。For example, issues related to the role of geographical environment in the development of human society，It is not only a theoretical question about which factors determine the historical development of human society，Also for contemporary China’s economy、Politics、The development and decision-making of military and even culture are of great significance。I would rather think that the role of geographical environment on the development of human society should be dialectically understood。He thinks，Geographical environment，Or the natural environment for social development、Natural conditions、Natural basis，It is one nj bet365 necessary conditions for social material life and social development。Not excluded in local areas and specific time periods，For example, in the early stages of human society，The geographical environment can play a decisive role to a certain extent。But for historical development as a whole，It is not the geographical environment that plays a decisive role，But the production method。“Geographical environment determinism” and denial nj bet365 role of geographical environment in social development，It’s all one-sided。His thoughts on this theoretical issue，Beginning in the 1950s when "geographical environmental determinism" was used as a critique of bourgeois theory，After thirty years、After five revisions, the manuscript was published，Shows his rigorous thinking and persistent pursuit of an academic issue。

Mr. Ning has also thought about the geographical environment of Chinese history in shaping Chinese cultural characteristics。He thinks，Geographic environment is one nj bet365 necessary conditions for human material life and social development，Characteristics that affect the production relationships formed by people in the production process；Indirectly affects social life through production methods、Other aspects of social relationships，such as politics、Culture, etc.。Specifically speaking of Chinese history，The geographical environment contributed to the early development of intensive agriculture on the mainland in China，This economic form creates the contemporary nature of Chinese culture、Practicality、Distinctive characteristics of experience and emphasis on personnel，Also contributes to the development of ancient Chinese history，Has a certain degree of precocity and continuity，Having strong independence，But there is no isolation；The cultures of various ethnic groups in China are diverse，But with commonality。Fundamentally，Chinese culture is enterprising、Open、Tolerance、Change、The spirit of development。Saying that Chinese culture is a culture of "diversity and unity"，“Diversity” is reflected in the nation、Economic、Social、Political differences；“Oneness” is reflected in the existence nj bet365 above differences，There are also many common aspects。

In Mr. Ning’s later years，He expressed his views on the "cultural craze" that was once popular in society in the 1980s and 1990s，Also upholds the calm and objective attitude of a Marxist historian。He thinks，“Culture” is the product of certain nj bet365 conditions，Not eternity、Absolute or existence beyond time and space。Various "cultural supremacy" or "cultural determinism"，They are all non-scientific，Not worth promoting。“Cultural determinism” refers to nj bet365 changes、Conflict、Agitation，It all comes down to culture，Ignore the foundation of social economy，And the interaction of politics and culture。Under the social environment at that time，It also requires academic courage to put forward such a view。

　　nj bet365 TheoryCombined with specific issues in Chinese nj bet365

I would rather not be a “theorist” who only talks about “theory”，He mostly uses Marxist materialist dialectics to observe specific historical phenomena。Pay special attention to the interconnection and deep relationship between historical facts，Focus on explaining the characteristics of historical development。For example, questions about China’s feudal social and economic structure and institutional characteristics，He believes that people often say that China’s feudal economy is an “agricultural economy” and “natural economy”，That’s a good thing，But incomplete。Because Chinese society has had social division of labor very early，Mainly the division of labor in agriculture and handicrafts，These are the two major departments nj bet365 feudal economy。The products of these two departments need to be exchanged，This kind of exchange will eventually develop to the point where commodity exchange is its most important form，This brings us to the third department - business，And increasingly important。So，The feudal economy in Chinese history was not an absolutely closed and static system，It is rather open and active，The commodity economy is the factor that promotes the openness and activity nj bet365 feudal economic system。

Another example is about the operation of various elements of China’s feudal economic structure，I rather made a theoretical summary of "small cycle" and "big cycle"。Start from the countryside，Most nj bet365 agricultural products are consumed by oneself，Then reproduce，This is a "small loop"。Its remaining products and part of its necessary products follow two routes，One is injected into other regions and departments through feudal state taxes，This is a non-commercial activity，Or basically non-commodity activities；The other one is through the market，Enter the urban handicraft industry，Then go back to the market，Entering the countryside again，Finally completed consumption，This is a "big cycle"。The "small cycle" uses China's climate and crop growth cycle, that is, one year as the operating cycle。The loss of "small cycle" is small，The efficiency is high，But the economic benefits are not high，As for the "big cycle" operation cycle, it is difficult to estimate it in one year，The loop process is very slow，The loss is not small，The economic benefits are not very high，But there are still some。

Another example is the explanation nj bet365 so-called "Needham problem"，That is, China’s feudal society was originally relatively advanced，Why did we lag behind the West in modern times？What is resistance？The academic community has put forward many reasons to explain，Or hold one end，Or in summary。Would rather think，Based on China’s special national conditions to explore the reasons why China’s feudal society initially developed and then stagnated，Of course the interaction of various factors should be taken into account，But we should pay special attention to the role of internal factors，Especially the role of more decisive economic factors，The role of long-term rather than temporary (such as policy) factors。Discussion nj bet365 above issues，All factors related to it are comprehensively considered，From the interconnection of various factors、Interacting，Analyze problems dialectically。Analysis nj bet365 problem，It’s from here to there，From the outside to the inside，Go deeper，Get to the heart nj bet365 matter。

I would rather study specific historical issues，Never satisfied with observing the appearance of historical things，Often have the characteristics of penetration，Strive to have a comprehensive understanding nj bet365 development of Chinese history。Such as the study of "communities" in ancient China，The materials involved date back to Pre-Qin Dynasty，The end nj bet365 Ming and Qing Dynasties，Not only almost exhausts the relevant records in handed down documents，And make full use of stone carving materials and Dunhuang materials，Shows the happenings of ancient Chinese folk groups、Trajectory of development and evolution，Provides an important window for us to observe the activities of grassroots people and civil organizations in ancient China。

Another example is his investigation of population issues in ancient China。The investigation period was also from the Warring States Period to the Ming and Qing Dynasties，And concluded that the development law of ancient population is a "step-like jump"。The population in the mid-Warring States period was approximately 25 million to 30 million，This is the first step；From Han to Tang，The population does not seem to exceed 60 to 70 million，This is the second step；From the late Northern Song Dynasty，The population will grow to about 100 million，This is the third step；Since the early years of Qianlong in the Qing Dynasty，In just 100 years，The population soared from more than 100 million to 400 million，This is the fourth step。Such research results，It is not only of great value for understanding the entire ancient nj bet365 of China，Establish a scientific view of population development in today’s society，It also has reference significance。

Another example is the discussion on the cyclical rate nj bet365 rise and fall of Chinese dynasties，The period involved is also more than a dozen dynasties from Qin to Qing。He concluded that there are three ways for new dynasties to replace old dynasties in history: one is war；The second is to use non-violent means，The so-called "giving in"；Third, the nomads in the north took the opportunity to raise troops and move south，Conquer half or even all of China。About the rise and fall of dynasties over two thousand years，I would rather summarize three lessons learned: 1、China is an agricultural society，Agriculture is the foundation，Farmers account for the vast majority nj bet365 country’s population，How a ruler treats peasants，Become the key to the success or failure of a dynasty。二、The issue of governance at all levels of bureaucracy and officials at all levels in an authoritarian centralized country is very important，Rulers throughout the history have attached great importance to it。When a dynasty rises, it often attaches great importance to the regulation of officials，The reason why a dynasty declines，The important reason is the corruption of officials。三、The rise and fall of dynasties，At first glance, it seems like a cycle that starts over and over again，But it’s not just a return，Like a spiral，Continuously rising in the cycle，Continuous development。After the Song Dynasty，Development momentum has been hindered，After the mid-19th century，The invasion of European capitalist forces，China has become a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society。Problems listed above，Thousands of years ago，Across thousands of miles，From the long-term specific historical process，Reveal the characteristics and laws of its development and change，Unpublished before。Research on almost every specific problem，He combined the basic theories of Marxism with specific issues in Chinese history to investigate，And draw convincing conclusions。

Ning Ke’s writings are thoughtful and thoughtful，Thoughtful argument，Clear statement，The conclusion is naturally convincing。Due to his profound theoretical literacy and keen academic vision，His academic research is often forward-looking and leading。Such as his research on agricultural production figures nj bet365 Han Dynasty、Research on ancient Chinese population，And the research on the communities of Han and Tang Dynasties，They are all pioneers，Inspire successors to continue research on related topics。His research results have also received attention from the international academic community，His academic views are often introduced abroad as representative views。

Ning Ke’s academic treatise was a representative achievement of that era，Now it has become an important part nj bet365 contemporary historical heritage。His series of insightful views，It still shines with the brilliance of theory and the spark of wisdom，Has "outstanding and indelible" quality。Without a doubt，He is a Marxist historian who has quite successfully used the basic theories of Marxism to study ancient Chinese history！

　　(Author’s unit: School of nj bet365, Capital Normal University)