The 19th century was the period of the culmination of classical inductive bet365 games。During the period，Bacon's "New Instruments" written in Latin was translated into English，The "System of bet365 games" published by John Stuart Mill in 1843 provides the "uniformity" premise and four experimental methods for inductive reasoning (then derived as "Mill's Five Methods")。From the perspective of the history of science，There are two other clues to the development of inductive bet365 games in the 19th century: in the context of scientific professionalization，Scientist groups began to reflect on inductive methods based on their own and historical scientific practices，And then put more emphasis on the role of subjectivity in the induction process；In the trend of popularizing science，Science popularizers attempt to introduce inductive methods to a wider group，As ​​a result, several popular books on inductive bet365 games appeared。

　　Reflective and bet365 games method based on scientific practice

19th century，Natural science develops rapidly，His achievements include the law of electromagnetic induction and electromagnetic theory in physics、Proposition of the law of energy conservation and energy dissipation in thermodynamics，The establishment of atomic theory and the periodic table of elements in chemistry，The discovery of Neptune in astronomy，Evolution in life sciences、Cell theory、Proposition of microbial theory, etc.。With the enhancement of professionalism，Scientific research turns from a hobby to a profession，The nature of "science" and its methods also became questions for this group of people just called "scientists"。Different from philosophers，The views of scientific practitioners rely more on the history of science and their own scientific practices。They gradually realize，Different disciplines in the field of natural sciences have their own cognitive characteristics，But different disciplines should follow the same method，i.e. bet365 games method。

among scientists，The British astronomer Sir John Frederick William Herschel discussed inductive bet365 games earlier。John Herschel’s father, Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel, is a famous astronomer，Discovered Uranus in 1781 using a telescope of his own design，Also the founder of stellar astronomy、The first president of the Royal Astronomical Society。After John Herschel graduated from St. John's College, Cambridge，Continuing his father’s observation and research work，Especially in 1834, he went to the Cape of Good Hope for four years of astronomical observations。He proposed it in his book "Treatise on Natural Philosophy" published in 1830，Bacon accomplished "showing from broad and general principles how and why Aristotle was wrong；Revealing the peculiar weaknesses of his philosophical approach，And there is a more powerful and better way to replace it" task。While inheriting the tradition of British empiricism，John Herschel once again emphasized the role of creative imagination。In his opinion，Whether it is from phenomena to laws，Still from law to theory，Both can come from the application of inductive forms，It can also arise from bold hypotheses。

John Herschel’s friend William Whewell further broke through the empiricist tradition。Whewell graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge，Has in-depth research on tides，In Physics、Astronomy、There are also works published in geology，It was he who coined the word "scientist"。Revolving around the theme of induction，Whewell published the three-volume "bet365 games History of Science" in 1837，Published the two-volume "Philosophy of bet365 games Science" in 1840。Whewell’s ideological characteristics，An attempt to reconcile empiricism and transcendentalism。On the one hand，Whewell affirmed the role of Bacon’s thought in the development of science，Like Bacon, he opposed the understanding of natural science as an Aristotelian deduction，Thinks “If one were to choose a philosopher as the hero of the scientific method revolution，Francis Bacon undoubtedly deserves this honor”。On the other hand，Whewell introduced Kant’s philosophy into empiricism，To demonstrate how knowledge can be both empirical and necessary。Whewell particularly emphasizes the active role of the mind in the process of cognition，rather than a passive recipient。Although his scientific method, like Bacon's, is based on collecting facts as a "prelude"，But the "induction" as the second step is not a simple mechanical process from the special to the general，And more emphasis is placed on creativity in induction。Whewell uses "integration" to define thinking activities from empirical facts to general laws。In his opinion，“Integration” means using concepts that act as thin threads to string together facts like pearls。As the examples of astronomers Tycho and Kepler illustrate，Tycho made a lot of observations but may not be able to make scientific discoveries，And Kepler used the concept of ellipses instead of epicycles to deal with Tycho's empirical material，Thus, Kepler’s first law was proposed to change the planet’s orbit from a perfect circle to an ellipse。

Whewell pays special attention to the fit between inductive theory and the history of science。As he pointed out in his debate with Mueller，Unless Mill can make the inductive method he proposed widely applicable to the history of science，We can better assess the value of his approach。Mill criticized Whewell for not allowing the existence of bet365 games in inductive reasoning，All that remains is "guessing" that does not follow logical rules。However, Whewell does not agree with this accusation，He claimed that he was only opposed to the mechanical handling of empirical facts，But the process of choosing appropriate concepts to integrate empirical facts is still rational reasoning。Visible，Both Mill and Whewell tried to defend the objectivity and possibility of knowledge through "induction"，But the two chose different approaches。Mill tried to eliminate or minimize the subjective component of knowledge，Thus ensuring the objectivity of knowledge；But in Whewell’s view，The subjective component cannot be separated in cognition，Therefore in order to achieve the objectivity of knowledge，We must pay attention to the conceptual component of knowledge。This also allowed the two to form their own unique inductive bet365 games theory。

　　Popularize the bet365 games method as a scientific method

The Victorian era in England was the era of professional scientists，It is also the era of popularizers of science。Through newspapers、Textbook、Encyclopedias and other printed matter，and lectures、Exhibition、Demo、Coffee House、Clubs and other activities，Scientist、Writer、Religious groups and other parties are trying to introduce easy-to-understand bet365 games knowledge to various social groups in a targeted manner。In this process，bet365 games method is the same as bet365 games knowledge，Also considered to be something that the public can understand and practice。

The British "Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge" founded in 1826，SDUK) was one of the representatives and pioneers of the popularization of science during this period。The association aims to provide publications such as "Practical Knowledge Library" and "Interesting Knowledge Library" to the public。In "Practical Knowledge Library"，There is "Interpretation of Bacon's "New Tools (New Methods of Scientific Research)" published in 1827。Compared to Bacon’s original text，A major feature of this book is the introduction of scientific history examples such as Newton's theory after the writing of "New Instruments" to prove the effectiveness of Bacon's method，And more emphasis on the role of experiment and observation in understanding。Although the Association for the Propagation of Practical Knowledge insists that its publications are non-partisan and non-religious，But the book still has the same color of natural theology as the natural sciences of the same era。In fact，The author of the book, John Hoppus, has not only long served as chair professor of bet365 games and philosophy of mind at University College London，Also a pastor。

1870s，Daniel Macmillan, the founder of the scientific journal "Nature", organized and published a series of science textbooks "Scientific Enlightenment"。Macmillan hired leading scholars in various disciplines as authors at the time，By biologist Huxley、Chemist Henry Enfield Roscoe、Physicist Balfour Stewart co-serves as editor-in-chief，And Huxley wrote the independent book "Introduction"。The "bet365 games" volume in this textbook is from a logician、Economist William Stanley Jevons，Aimed at guiding people to make reliable reasoning in daily life。The book provides a detailed introduction to both inductive bet365 games and deductive bet365 games，Consider inductive bet365 games to be about "the ways in which we can reason"，Obtain natural laws from observed facts and events”。In Jefons’ opinion，Induction in scientific discovery is divided into four steps: preliminary observation、Propose a hypothesis、Deduction of hypothesis、Repeatedly test the deduced conclusions against the facts。In other words，Although bet365 games includes deductive bet365 games and inductive bet365 games，But inductive reasoning as a scientific method includes deductive reasoning。"bet365 games" sold 8,000 copies within 6 months of publication，Made Yefons very satisfied。In addition，The "Introduction", "Physical Geography", "Botany" and other volumes in the "Scientific Enlightenment" series all discuss the inductive method，And "bet365 games" also quoted examples from the history of science in volumes such as "Chemistry" and "Astronomy"。

　　Classical inductive bet365 games spreads in China

Early 19th century，With the spread of Western learning to the east, it started again after the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties，The latest achievements of inductive bet365 games are spread in China。The translation content excludes classic works of inductive bet365 games such as "New Tools" and "bet365 games System"，The publications in the above two clues cannot be ignored，Even because of its practicality、Popular and easier to understand。

At first，The Chinese literati came into contact with John Herschel、The bet365 games thinking of scientists such as Whewell。For example, "Talk about the Sky" in 1859 was proposed on the basis of its original book "A Summary of Astronomy"，Astronomical observations due to the instrument itself、External environment、Errors may occur due to human operation and other reasons，Therefore, we must “see first”，Create a method with the obtained number，That is to use the method to test the observation instrument，Request for mistakes and correct them。Loop test，The difference is easy to get rid of”。

thereafter，There is a direct translation of scientific method and inductive bet365 games。The first volume of "New Tools" was translated into Chinese by "Gezhi Xinli" which was serialized in "Yizhi Xinlu" from 1876 to 1877，And published in 1888 under the name "Gezhi New Machine"；"Gezhi New Method" uses Hopps's "Interpretation of Bacon's "New Tools (New Methods of Scientific Research)" as the basis to introduce the content of the first volume of "New Tools"，Serialized in "Gezhi Compilation" in 1877、1878 "Global Gazette"。Afterwards，The Chinese translation of the "Scientific Enlightenment" series was published in 1886 as part of the "Sixteen Types of Western Enlightenment"，Among them, the Chinese translation of the volume "bet365 games" is "bet365 games Enlightenment".、Deduction、Terms such as induction are translated as "differentiating learning", "measuring things by reason" and "that is, observing the principles of physics"，Provides a relatively complete set of Chinese translations of bet365 games terms。The 1898 "Instructions for Neo-Confucianism" is based on Mill's "System of bet365 games" and Comte's "Lectures on Positive Philosophy"。The above publications are mainly by William Muirhead、Joseph Edkins、dominated by John Fryer and other Westerners。

Entering the 20th century，Yan Fu translated "Muller's Famous Studies" and "A Brief Introduction to Famous Studies" based on Muller's "System of bet365 games" and Jefons' "bet365 games" respectively，Zhang Junmai and Wang Guowei also translated "Jefons' Theory of Neo-Confucianism" and "Dictionary of Science" respectively based on Jefons's "Basic Courses in bet365 games"，Become a pioneer in translating and introducing inductive bet365 games among Chinese intellectuals。

　　(Author’s affiliation: Institute of Contemporary China, bet365 games Academy of Social Sciences)