Engels said in a letter to Konrad Schmitt on August 5, 1890，“For many young writers in Germany，The word ‘materialism’ is generally just a cliché，They use clichés as labels and attach them to various things，No further research，That is to say，They put this label on it，I thought the problem was solved”。Visible，Many young Germans just use materialist "formula" to construct their rather poor historical knowledge into a "general system"。Different from this，“Our (Marx and Engels-cited note) view of history is first of all a guide for conducting research，Not a lever to structure the system in the Hegelian way。All history must be re-study”，This view of history requires detailed study of "the conditions for the existence of various bet365 casino bonus forms"，Then try to find the corresponding politics from these conditions、Law、Philosophy、Views of religion, etc.。

　　Beyond “bet365 casino bonus theoretical” explanation

Engels’ restatement of historical materialism responded to a common misunderstanding in the development of Marxism。Long time，Historical materialism is regarded as a philosophical category about the inevitable process of history or general bet365 casino bonus theory。Among them，Such as productivity and production relations、Economic base and superstructure、Class and exploitation, etc.，They are also interpreted as "general theories" that are divorced from any empirical process。This interpretation creates a fundamental problem: although historical materialism attempts to explain bet365 casino bonus development，It is inevitable to carry out certain scientific abstraction and category construction，However，Once this "general category" based on scientific abstraction is used to summarize empirical objects，I fell into the error of using super-historical logic instead of historical analysis of specific objects。It is in this sense，Marx and Engels had long noticed the “Marxists” of their contemporaries，I just use historical materialism as an excuse not to study history and simply abstract it into a universal formula that can be applied everywhere。And Marx pointed out，Common to all stages of production、General regulations abstracted by thinking certainly exist，But it is impossible to understand any actual historical production stage using these "general provisions"。In "The German Ideology"，When Marx and Engels discussed production, they particularly emphasized “a certain mode of production” or “a certain industrial stage”，It is associated with "a certain way of common activities" or "a certain bet365 casino bonus stage"，Rather than any abstract "production in general"。In other words，Understand the "certain" nature of production or bet365 casino bonus activities，Is the key to transcending the idealistic view of history and entering "realistic history"，The inherent tendency of historical materialism requires the rise from "general theories" and "general regulations" to specific theories with historical specificity、Specific regulations are under way。

If "The German Ideology" still remains more in the "general theory" of the mode of production，Then，When Marx entered the period of criticism of political economy in 1858，The "certain" nature of this kind of production has only been concretely grasped。Marx realized at this time，In order to grasp the specificity of this bet365 casino bonus process，This kind of investigation cannot start from the most primitive stage of the production system，But it must point to the most developed form，That is, the bourgeois economic form。Bourgeois society as “the most developed and most diverse historical organization of production”，The understanding of the various categories that express its bet365 casino bonus relations not only points to the deep structure of bourgeois society，“At the same time, it also enables us to see through the structure and production relations of all bet365 casino bonus forms that have collapsed”。Marx called it “backward thinking”，The real meaning lies in analyzing the internal structure and historical nature of the bourgeois economy，Revealing the fundamental trend of bet365 casino bonus self-sublation。Because "historical development is always based on this: the final form always regards the past forms as various stages of development towards itself，And because it is rarely and only under certain conditions capable of self-criticism”。This way，Historical materialism transitions from the "general theory" about history to the theory about the bourgeois mode of production and bet365 casino bonus process，But we must understand the nature of bourgeois society，It must be mediated by the criticism of political economy。According to Engels，“Political economics is the theoretical analysis of modern bourgeois society”，Is the entrance to understanding modern society。But because political economy is “based on the essence of alienation” and “fixes the special scope of the essential activities of alienation”，Thus, things like private property、Wage labor、The monetary system and so on are accepted as established prerequisites of civil society，And solidified into some non-reflective natural understandings in people’s minds。To this，Criticism of political economy raises questions in an epistemological way，That is: How is this objective understanding of historically specific materialized bourgeois bet365 casino bonus relations possible？I call it Marx’s problem of bet365 casino bonus epistemology。Historical materialism as bet365 casino bonus epistemology，Not only through the criticism of the bet365 casino bonus production mode of abstract subjectivity and abstract objectivity (thinking and existence) that shape the general problem of modern epistemology，Achieving a reasonable solution "in human practice and the understanding of this practice" "mysterious things that lead theory to mysticism"，and，Real knowledge based on bet365 casino bonus epistemology，Also contains the transformation of bourgeois bet365 casino bonus relations、The demand to realize scientific socialism。Therefore，Reification of historical materialism，It is not a cold empirical science that has no value，It is “the science of real people and their historical development” which aims at the revolution of people’s survival in an alienated world。

　　Reconstruct the bet365 casino bonus understanding

The foundation of the ideological revolution of historical materialism lies in the reconstruction of the object of cognition。Marx believes，National economics started from the wrong methodology (empiricism) and established the wrong cognitive object (empirical representation) from the beginning，And then produce some fetishistic knowledge，Becomes an unconscious expression of commodity production。Opposite，Scientific social understanding transcends empiric representational thinking，Get out of any isolated fact or historical development，Progress to the understanding of "concrete totality"。Marx established the object of cognition as “totality”，The deeper meaning is to emphasize that "part" is not only defined as an element of "whole"，And reproduced based on the validity of the "total"。In the context of bourgeois social understanding，This means that there is not a certain "part" of bourgeois society，Rather, the existence of "bourgeois society as a whole" is regarded as the "object"。Because "concrete totality" as "ideological totality" or "concrete thought"，Of course it’s about thinking、The product of understanding，Marx’s concept of “bet365 casino bonus” is the category that best expresses this understanding，Thus an object of social epistemology。

Taking "the totality of bourgeois society" as the object，Has dual connotations beyond national economics and Hegelian philosophy。If national economics remains at the surface of experience，Taking alienated bet365 casino bonus relations as the starting point of understanding，Falling into fetishism，Then，Hegel represents the rationalist fallacy in bet365 casino bonus epistemology。Hegel certainly grasped the "total" nature of truth as the cognitive object of philosophy，But he understood this process as "the self-movement of thought"。Result，“Understanding thinking” and “understood world” replace real people and the real world as the objects of recognition。Marx thought，“From abstract to concrete methods，Just thinking is used to grasp the concrete、Think of it as a concrete way of spiritual representation。But it is by no means the production process of the specific itself”。Although Marx’s use of dialectics still clearly shows traces of Hegel，But on how to understand the issue of “cognitive objects”，The two are completely different。For Marx，“It’s about theoretical methods，Subject，Society，It must always appear in front of the surface as a premise”。This is to say，Although "thought concrete" is the result produced through the thinking process，But this does not mean that categories can be independent of reality、Theoretical abstraction can be separated from real concrete objects and real objects。Opposite，Realistic concrete、The object of reality is the object of Marx’s knowledge，Nothing more，The capture of this object took "two paths" ("on the first path"，Complete representation evaporates into abstract provisions；On the second road，The complete process in which abstract provisions lead to concrete representation in the process of thinking"，Conceptualized as rational provisions in thinking。Therefore，Marx’s criticism of empiricism does not mean that he denies the concrete reality and real objects as the source of objectivity of knowledge，“Thinking concretely” as the result of synthesis in cognition，It does not mean that the object of knowledge is an intrinsic thing of consciousness。For Marx，Historical materialism always regards the revelation of the perceptual world and its objective nature as the starting point of "real empirical science"，And when it is fully specified by epistemology，Just be logical、Systematized into "real knowledge"。

Judging from the mature expression of "Das Kapital"，Marx’s criticism of bourgeois social relations from a holistic perspective，Break the empirical thinking dominated by materialized consciousness，It no longer regards “economic facts” as quantifiable givens，Rather, it is regarded as a structured and totalized existence that is always centered on the reproduction of capital。Here，Past about thinking and existence、The epistemological assumptions of the "dualism" of subject and object have all disappeared，On the surface, Marx seems to be further away from philosophy，But the deeper meaning lies in thinking、Knowledge、Politics、Class and other factors are all reduced to the internal "process" that produces the "bet365 casino bonus"。As Althusser pointed out，“bet365 casino bonus” as a complex social form fully developed in depth and breadth、A "very developed population"，cannot be reduced to any single cause。Opposite，It is made of thought、Knowledge、Politics is composed of these "pluralistic" elements。At the same time，In terms of the goals of Marx’s social epistemology，Its objective analysis of "the totality of bourgeois society"，It also means promoting changes in social structure through active participation in social "processes"。

　　The path of bet365 casino bonus epistemology

As a concrete path of historical materialism，Social epistemology turns the philosophical gaze from transcendent existence to the real existence of "bet365 casino bonus"，The purpose is to "revolutionize the existing world"，Towards Scientific Socialism。For Marx，If the road to scientific socialism exists within bourgeois society，Then，It is very necessary to correctly understand and actively abandon the universality of capitalism，Because it is the core of a new civilization related to building socialism。

Then，What is the universality of capitalism？For this question，Historical materialism presents two cognitive perspectives: the object dimension and the subject dimension。In the object dimension of cognition，The universality of capitalism，Because bet365 casino bonus the most developed stage of human productivity so far，The massive material wealth it created surpassed any previous historical stage of production。bet365 casino bonus in the sense of developing productivity，Capitalism has moved towards "excessive civilization" - while creating huge material wealth，It also created a large number of poor proletarians，Triggering cyclical economic crises。This shows that the production relations in bourgeois society are too narrow，Can no longer accommodate the wealth it produces。Marx believes，Only beyond the private ownership of capitalist means of production，“On the basis of the achievements of the capitalist era，In other words，On the basis of cooperation and common possession of land and the means of production produced by labor itself，Re-establish personal ownership”，This is the direction to realize the new socialist civilization。If this dialectical expression is too illusory，Marx clearly expressed the possibility of workers’ governance in Volume 3 of Capital when discussing joint-stock companies and cooperative factories: in workers’ cooperative factories，The opposition between capital and wage labor is abandoned，Workers as an association use the means of production to multiply their own labor。From a historical perspective，As a new mode of production, this kind of workers' cooperative naturally arises from the bourgeois mode of production，“There is no factory system that emerged from the capitalist mode of production，bet365 casino bonus impossible to develop cooperative factories”。The root of socialism lies in，Enable the universality of capitalism to be realized in a broader sense。

On the subject dimension of cognition，The understanding of "the totality of bourgeois society" also points to the self-understanding of the working class。Lukacs thinks，It was in the criticism of reification that Marx saw a new form of consciousness—class consciousness。Class consciousness is a totalizing force，It overcomes consciousness and reality in previous philosophies、Dual relationship between thinking and existence，No longer care whether thoughts objectively "reflect" reality，And directly means a kind of "realization": among them，Once the working class reaches a “knowledge” of the true relationship of its position，He can no longer be reified as a "labor commodity"，But transformed into an agent of action to transform the world。In this sense，Social epistemology is not contemplation and reflection on the world，But a theory of revolutionary practice。Or，Basic goals of social epistemology，It is through the understanding of the objective power and class subject in capitalist production，Constructing a contradictory and dialectically developing social totality (scientific socialist theory)。In the perspective of historical materialism，This kind of objective knowledge is generated from the "bet365 casino bonus"，And also participates in the construction of social totality as a "concrete thought"，Because it starts from the “theoretical standpoint of the revolutionary class”，Unity of theory and practice，Frees people from the alienated world imposed on them。As the saying goes, "There is no theory of revolution，There is no revolutionary practice”。

　　(This article is a phased result of the National bet365 casino bonus Science Fund Project “Research on ‘Criticism of Spiritual Politics’ in the Context of Historical Materialism” (21XZX009)

(Author’s unit: Research Center for Basic Philosophy bet365 casino bonus of Jilin University)