In the belief in the bet365 withdrawal of Amitabha Buddha in Medieval Chinese Buddhism, the issue of female reincarnation and female spiritual practice is an issue worth discussing。Through the interpretation and adjustment of gender teachings in Buddhist scriptures by the male Buddhist elite at that time，We can see the efforts made by Chinese Buddhism to establish the bet365 withdrawal concept of gender equality。In addition，In the Medieval bet365 withdrawal Rebirth，It can be seen that the elites of the medieval male Sangha deliberately established the image of certain lay female religious authorities in the narratives of past lives，To further expand the practical possibilities for women’s spiritual practice。By focusing on female topics in Chinese bet365 withdrawal belief，The author hopes to show a more complex, diverse and gender-sensitive Chinese Buddhist tradition。

　The emergence of female narratives is an important sign of the Sinicization of bet365 withdrawal belief

All the time，East Asian Amitabha bet365 withdrawal Belief Centered on Chinese Buddhist Scriptures，Usually giving the impression of unequal status between the sexes、The impression that its teachings are built around men，And this interpretation of the gender construction of the bet365 withdrawal，Often associated with India、Related with many religious cognitions in the Central Asian Mahayana Buddhist scriptures that discuss various physical and mental ills of women。Some scholars pointed out，Some discussions on gender issues in early Chinese translations of Amitabha bet365 withdrawal classics and treatises，It may have caused a long-term discussion on the issue of the Paradise and women’s spiritual practice in the bet365 withdrawal belief of later Han Dynasties。The paradise world described in the Chinese translation of Amitabha bet365 withdrawal scriptures，It is one of the most important goals of liberation that Chinese Mahayana Buddhists have long pursued。Judging from the contents of the classics and treatises，The characteristic of "no woman"，It is the most well-known world of Paradise、It is also different from other pure lands of Buddhist lands established by Mahayana Buddhism。Chinese translation of Amitabha Sutra，The "Infinite Life Sutra" is the Buddhist scripture that describes the appearance of the Paradise in the most detail，The "35th Vow" among the many original vows proclaimed by Amitabha Buddha is related to female practice，Several different translations of this wish became the origin of the later theory that there are no women in the Paradise。“When someone becomes a Buddha，Lingwu Guozhong，No woman，Any woman who wishes to be born in our country shall be a man”，Set as the second vow (the thirty-fifth vow in later translations) in Zhiqian's translation of "Amitabha Sanye Sanfo Salou Buddha Sandalwood Sutra of Humanity"，This means that all women who are successfully reborn in the paradise world will transform into a male body and will not retain their original female body，Obviously expresses the meaning of excluding the female body from the bet365 withdrawal of bliss。This kind of translation of this vow is retained in the Song Dynasty version of the Mahayana Infinite Life Ornate Sutra。The treatises subsequently introduced to China，Signed by Vasubandhu Bodhisattva, "The Infinite Life Sutra Upati Sacrificial Rebirth Verses" ("Treatise on Rebirth")，Has a huge influence on the bet365 withdrawal Patriarch of Han Dynasty，It proposes the "Mahayana Good Root Realm，Wait without ridicule。Women and their roots are lacking，The seeds of the two vehicles are not born”，A more extreme take on the doctrine that excludes women，It seems that the possibility of women practicing the bet365 withdrawal method is completely cut off，And trying to establish a bet365 withdrawal practice theory that is completely male-centered。

However，Born in Central Asia、The bet365 withdrawal belief that matured in China is gradually becoming Sinicized and forming a complex and diverse religious narrative，It’s really like the interpretation from some modern perspectives，Full acceptance of the gender construction in the Sutras，And develop religious discourse that demeans women？The author will sort out the female perspective and female narratives in the bet365 withdrawal belief in the Han Dynasty from the Tang Dynasty to the Five Dynasties，And proposed that the early Han belief in the bet365 withdrawal of Amitabha actually did not fully accept the teachings of "there is no woman" or "women do not give birth"。Quite the opposite，The gender theory in bet365 withdrawal teachings has been continuously absorbed、Adjustment，The deeds of Chinese domestic female practitioners have been repeatedly unearthed、Writing，bet365 withdrawal lay women have become another important subject of religious writing parallel to the male perspective and male narrative。The emergence of female perspective and female narrative is one of the important signs of the Sinicization of bet365 withdrawal belief，It is also the most representative phenomenon in the history of Mahayana Buddhism that focuses on women’s faith。

　From the Sui and Tang Dynasties to the Five Dynasties, women became one of the main subjects of bet365 withdrawal practice

Extend the gender elements in the Chinese translation of the Amitabha bet365 withdrawal Sutra into the basis for gender bias in the Chinese bet365 withdrawal belief，Scholar Paul Harrison objected to this earlier，At the same time, we also oppose the belief in the bet365 withdrawal of Amitabha in East Asia as a "male-centered" religion in the modern sense。The core basis is，Zhi Qian’s translation of the Infinite Life Sutra is not the most popular version in China，In the more influential Kang Seng Kaiben，The "Thirty-fifth Vow" related to women does not mention the content of "no women" in the bet365 withdrawal，Just say: "Suppose I become a Buddha，Infinite and inconceivable worlds of Buddhas in the ten directions，There is a woman who hears my name，Happiness and joy，Generate bodhicitta，Hate women，The person who becomes a female statue after the end of his life，Not achieving enlightenment。”displayed here，bet365 withdrawal Classics from Central Asia，It may be due to different versions or different understandings of translators，There is no unified understanding of the relationship between the World of Ultimate Bliss and female practice。Kang Seng Kaiben’s thirty-fifth wish，As well as the Bodhiliu branch's version of "The Great Treasure Accumulation Sutra: The Assembly of Infinite Life Tathagata" which inherited this translation method, and the Song Dynasty Wang Rixiu's collection version of "The Buddha Speaks of the Great Amitabha Sutra"，Do not accept the statement in Qian’s book that the bliss of rebirth requires a woman to turn into a man，This wish is only limited to Amitabha’s desire to fulfill the wish of all practitioners who subjectively choose to abandon the female body，Female body has no direct relationship with whether one can be reborn in bliss。Paul Harrison thinks，This shows that the male Buddhist elites between the Tang and Song Dynasties did not actively accept the setting of "no women" in the bet365 withdrawal，To provide doctrinal space for women’s spiritual practice。

In the discussion of Buddhist elites in the Middle Ages，Also transform the doctrine of "women cannot give birth" in the bet365 withdrawal，Provide basis for the establishment of female spiritual discourse。Master Tanluan, an important propagandist of the bet365 withdrawal Dharma in the Northern Wei Dynasty，In his "Commentary on Rebirth", he explains the concept of "woman" in the bet365 withdrawal "Women are not born" as a psychological state rather than a literal female body，A woman is just a metaphor for a troubled mentality，The psychological state of "like a person flattering a woman or making fun of a weak woman" may appear in practitioners of either gender，The transformation of a woman into a man in the afterlife is just a metaphor for the change of mental state from trouble to purity。Master Shandao, the founder of bet365 withdrawal in the Tang Dynasty, inherited the bet365 withdrawal theory of Tan Luan and his disciple Dao Chuo，The teachings of "there are no women" and "women do not give birth" in the bet365 withdrawal are also directed from the rejection of the female body to an interpretation of it as a psychological phenomenon or a step in practice。Shan Dao thinks，The "Women and their root deficiency" proposed in "The Theory of Rebirth"，It is a metaphor for Hinayana practitioners，corresponds to the subsequent "two-way species"，As opposed to this，All pure lands are Bodhisattvas of the "Mahayana species":

……Guanyin is not trivial，Let’s talk big first。When you hear great joy, you will develop the heart bet365 withdrawal supreme Tao，That is, the Mahayana Seed Birth，Also known as Mahayana Mind-Birth。When the flowers bloom again，Guanyin first speaks of Hinayana，Wen Xiaoshengxin，That is, the birth of two vehicles，Also known as the birth bet365 withdrawal mind bet365 withdrawal two vehicles...these three levels of people all have their minds raised there，Being born from the seeds of Mahayana by hearing the Mahayana。Because you don’t hear the story，So the two vehicles cannot be born。Anyone who speaks of seed is his heart。Come up and explain that the two vehicles do not give rise to meaning。Women and those who lack justice，He has no reason，Knowable。

Shandao sums it up as “whatever is said is the heart”，This means that the teaching that "women cannot give birth" refers to the change in the order of practice from small to large in Shandao's system，It does not actually mean that women cannot be reborn in the Paradise。This is also in line with Shandao Zhuanzun's "Avalokitesvara Sutra"、It is consistent with the intention to expand the scope of bet365 withdrawal rebirth with the system of nine levels of rebirth。Because the person who requested the Dharma in the "Avalokitesvara", Mrs. Veshiti, received the bet365 withdrawal Dharma as a woman and achieved success，It can be seen that the original intention of the classics also shows that women can be reborn in bliss。Slightly earlier than Shandao, there was also a bet365 withdrawal Sangha who wrote "bet365 withdrawal Treatise"，Interpret the woman in this doctrine of "women cannot give birth" as a kind of karmic seed that both men and women have and a kind of result inspired by it，Also denies that the word "woman" in "The Theory of Rebirth" refers exclusively to women in the biological sense。Similar formulations also appear in "Ten Doubts on the bet365 withdrawal" signed by Zhiyi, the founder of Tiantai in the Sui Dynasty，The author believes that it is a fallacy to only take the literal meaning of "women do not give birth"，The true meaning is that there are only Mahayana Bodhisattvas in the Ultimate Bliss without all the evil retributions and troubles in reincarnation，It does not mean that women in the Saha world cannot be reborn。The disciples of Shandao inherited his teacher’s teachings，Even suggested that there are no women in the Paradise，But there are incarnations of Bodhisattva。Absorb the thoughts of the four soils of Tiantai，Think that the composition of the paradise world is quite complicated，It’s not just as simple as the bet365 withdrawal of Sambhogakaya Buddha，It is a land with various categories to absorb different sentient beings，Therefore, there are also transformed women in the realm where mortals and saints live together。Late Tang bet365 withdrawal Monk Taoist Mirror、Shan Dao co-authored the book "Reciting the Buddha's Mirror"，points out more directly "women、Two times，Those who will not die，Undetermined nature of the person who will die。Women only love the female body，Not seeking the bet365 withdrawal，Unwilling to recite Buddha’s name，On the failure of concealment。Two times、The same thing happens even if the root is missing，Only live in Xiaoguo，No bet365 withdrawal，I don’t know how to recite Buddha’s name，So I won’t give birth”，The "woman" specifically refers to the nature of loving the female body without seeking the bet365 withdrawal、A psychological state of not practicing chanting the Buddha’s name。It can be seen from this，Masters in the Tang Dynasty all used various interpretations to adjust the connotation of the teaching that "women cannot give birth"，Thereby incorporating women into one of the main subjects of bet365 withdrawal practice。

　　Looking at the theory and practice space of women’s spiritual practice from the biographical narrative of bet365 withdrawal rebirth

In the early Tang Dynasty Jiacai's "bet365 withdrawal Theory", there was a chapter "Introduction to the Appearance of the Reborn"，A collection of twenty-one stories of monks and lay people who are inspired by the afterlife，Use the case of induction of the afterlife as an illustration of the doctrine of bet365 withdrawal belief、Media that enhances readers’ confidence，This is the first time among various bet365 withdrawal theories，Pioneering the creation of the compilation and writing of the induction biography of the bet365 withdrawal after death。In the stories collected by Jiacai，The story of the reincarnation of half of the women who were monks and lay people，Female deceased are not specifically portrayed as inferior to men，This is very different from the story of bet365 withdrawal rebirth rewritten by laymen in the Qing Dynasty。Like one of them:

The Zhenguan of the Tang Dynasty has come，Do not remember the year and month，Dongbaliyou Village, Yongan County, Luozhou，Name: Banlong Village。There is a blind old mother inside，surname Liang。Because the teacher advises to recite Amitabha，His old mother has good roots。After one lesson，Continue to recite Buddha’s name。Three years later，Both eyes can be opened。Vested view，Chant twice as much。More than four years，The retribution of Yanfu。The time to sacrifice your life，The whole village saw Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, banners, banners and jeweled canopies coming down to welcome them，Immediately end of life。Hecun respects，Will use extraordinary，So no burial is allowed。Together we built a pagoda bet365 withdrawal west of the village，The tower is now exposed on the road。Community between people in Taqian Village，Everyone pays tribute，Everyone bet365 withdrawal village, big or small, chants the Buddha。

This story of the blind old mother depicts a lay woman who attained rebirth in the bet365 withdrawal by chanting the Buddha’s name，The scene of being respected by the local collective as some kind of religious authority。In the narrative of the story，The blind old mother relied on her own practice to feel the auspicious sign of her death appearing before her，As evidence of his achievements in religious practice；After death again，The female body was invited into the pagoda according to the monastic customs，Become a sacred object blessed by religion。The female body accomplished by chanting the Buddha’s name，It is not considered as an obstacle to the bet365 withdrawal of Ultimate Bliss in Jacai’s writings，On the contrary, it can be worshiped by believers as a holy object for rebirth in the bet365 withdrawal，Thus in such a narrative，The connotation of using women as a negative metaphor no longer exists。In another quoted story "The County Lieutenant Wen Jingwen's Wife"，The narrative establishing the authority of women’s bet365 withdrawal belief is even more obvious:

County Captain Wen Jingwen，Unknown surname，A native of Jinyang, Bingzhou。Suffering from hemiplegia for a long time，Constant bed pillow。The husband told his wife: "Lie on the ground all day long，Why not recite Buddha’s name？"The woman said to her husband: "What Buddha are you thinking of?？"The husband said: "Recite Amitabha Buddha。”In two years，Kou constantly reciting the Buddha's name。The obstacles to sin are eliminated，See Amitabha Buddha Country。Qing Xie Husband said: "I have been ill for a long time，Very upset。Now I am taught to recite Amitabha，Leaving the day after tomorrow。Please tell your parents and brothers，Set up one fast to distinguish。" The husband said: "How can ordinary people see the Buddha's country？If it’s not Feng Xie Kuang See？" The woman said: "It's definitely not the wind。" Then he told his parents and family members: "The time has come for fasting。"Order to spread five collars on top of the ordinary monks，Sitting in a crowd of saints。Time，Seeing the saints in the distance。In other words: "I dislike the monks being filthy"，Refuse to sit together。"Then he sent the general to the flat-headed house，Place the seat。Offer the food，Zongsengshijing。Jihejiaji，The Dharma taught: "I now follow the Holy Queen twice as much"，Rebirth in the West，Volunteer。Mother’s family members, etc.，Everyone is chanting Buddha，Yu Houshengborn。The bet365 withdrawal of the West is incredible。”Facing west，unite to recite Buddha’s name，Even at the end of life。Like this，Unattainable。

Here Jiacai’s method of comparing the spiritual achievements of Wen County Wei’s wife with ordinary men, monks and laymen is more obvious。Wenxian Lieutenant doesn’t think he should stay in bed at home、A woman who is in pain all day long can achieve the status of a saint and see the Buddha before her death，Therefore, he was denounced as "violent and evil views"。When the woman prepares a fast before her death to welcome the saints in the bet365 withdrawal，The saints were in confusion because of the secular monks who were worshiping in the fasting、Poor practice leads to filthiness，So I don’t sit in the same place with ordinary monks to receive fast。Finally Jiacai lamented，A lay female practitioner like Wen County’s wife，Having a realm beyond the reach of ordinary people，The female image established in the article，His religious practice and realm have even surpassed that of ordinary male monks and laymen，The words about women being evil seem to have completely disappeared。As of the Five Dynasties Dao Shen's "Rebirth in the bet365 withdrawal of the West Rui Ying's Deleted Biography"，There are still stories like this to show the achievements of lay women’s bet365 withdrawal practice:

Liang，Haozhou people。Blind in both eyes。Because the monk advises to recite Amitabha，After receiving the teaching, it lasted for three years，Both eyes open，Everyone bet365 withdrawal village can see。At the end of life，Seeing Buddha and Bodhisattva coming to greet。After death，Bodhisattvas build the pagoda temple together。Respectful for all comings and goings，Men and women in a county all returned to their hearts and recited the Buddha's name。

The practice of collecting the bodies and bones of lay female bet365 withdrawal practitioners into the pagoda for worship，Outline a religious picture that combines female lay people with monastic monks and nuns。Very interesting thing，From the past life stories collected by Jiacai to the collection of past life stories by Daoshen，None of them contain the details of the body of a male at home entering the pagoda to be enshrined after his death，Whether this is a common cognitive difference between male and female lay achievers in the Tang Dynasty is unknown，But at least one can read from the text a unique respect for female lay practitioners。Proposed by scholar Christoph Kleine，Different from Mahayana Buddhism, especially the tendency of gender inequality in bet365 withdrawal teachings from Central Asia，Early Chinese bet365 withdrawal rebirth stories depict women’s unique religious achievements，A past life story that affirms that women are equal to men，It has to be said that it is a unique creation in the narrative of Chinese bet365 withdrawal belief，It also had an impact on the later female discourse structure of Japanese bet365 withdrawal belief。If we talk about the Chinese Buddhist elite’s absorption and transformation of women’s issues in the bet365 withdrawal teachings，In theory, it is still impossible to get rid of the limitations of using physical and psychological "female" as a negative metaphor，Then in their excavation and presentation of the deeds of local female bet365 withdrawal practitioners，Such limitations no longer exist。Therefore，In the bet365 withdrawal discourse system in Chinese history，The theoretical and practical space for women’s spiritual practice is gradually established。

Based on the interpretation and adjustment of the teachings of "no women" and "women are not born" in the bet365 withdrawal series of Amitabha Buddha's bet365 withdrawal Sutras by the Chinese Buddhist elites in the Middle Ages，The beginning of Chinese Buddhism’s interest in bet365 withdrawal belief，Seems to realize that the male-centered discourse paradigm in the Buddhist scriptures cannot be accepted literally，There should be a doctrinal space for the theory of female spiritual practice。In the records of local lay female bet365 withdrawal practitioners，All the male monk elites in the Tang Dynasty affirmed the achievements of women in practice through the tool of textual narrative，Even establish some images of female religious authority at home。The narrative of bet365 withdrawal women’s spiritual practice has become a unique phenomenon in the process of Sinicization of bet365 withdrawal belief。Female perspectives and female narratives deserve more attention in research on Chinese bet365 withdrawal beliefs。

　　(This article is a phased result bet365 withdrawal Youth Project bet365 withdrawal National Social Science Fund "Looking at the Sinicization of Buddhism from the Buddhist Induction Records bet365 withdrawal Ming and Qing Dynasties" (19CZJ004)

(Author’s affiliation: Department of bet365 withdrawal, Fudan University)