Left and right wing is a convenient label in modern political discourse。Italian political theorist Pobio once said: The only accurate left and right wing differences，It is people's attitude towards the concept of equality -left -wing wants to protect or promote equality，and the right wing will only maintain or increase inequality。But is the equality of "who" and "which type" here? In different times、Different countries，The ideology of the left and right points of the field refers to、Political target、Economic Policy、Social claims are often very different，Leave the specific context，It is inevitable that you will Zhang Guanli。

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The concept of the left and right wing，The number of seats arranged from the National Parliament, which originated from the old "third -level conference" from the early French Revolution -opposed to the kingship and the old system、Approve the revolution、Represents the interests of the citizens、Members of sympathy for civilians are left; support the king's right、Opposition Revolution、Members who maintain the traditional social order are right。Political radical or conservative、Promoting progress or emphasizing order，This is the original distinction standard of the left and right divisions。With the spiritual passage of the French Revolution，Excisitementist is the left wing、Conservatives, that is, the right wing soon becomes the European Union。Of course，Take the "Revolution or Reaction" logo around，Destined to be affected by the situation of the struggle，The division of camps often changes uninhabited。For example，From 1789-1794, in just five years，Fi Yang and Glen -Specials who originally belonged to the left -wing camp of the Yaobin School，It has been rejected by the Bet365 app download mountains as a reaction，Draw into the right of the right，Become a revolutionary attack object。The author of "Common Sense" and "Human Rights Theory"、The eager supporter of the French Revolution Thomas Panan，Also due to opposition to execution of Louis 16、Opposition to Robspier terrorist dictatorship，I was put into prison for a time。

The sharp change of the left wing itself during the French Revolution，It is not difficult for people to experience，The left and right points are not just the party with the party with the party，In fact, the disintegration of the enlightenment era classic liberal fuzzy consensus。Wish to know，The rational spirit of the enlightenment movement、Social progress beliefs of irrigation，The foundation for ideas for the French Revolution and the previous American independence and constitutional constitution。But in what way of transforming society and the design concept of good political system，Between the British and the French，Montesquan、French thinkers such as Voltaire and Rousseau，Deep differences have long been existed。Just，At that time, the British Industrial Revolution just started，The European bourgeoisie is far from gaining advantageous position，In this kind of environment，Representative of France，In the first half of the 19th century, European countries politically controlling controversy，The most intuitive performance of the most intuitive performance is nothing more than "supporting Republican constitutional government" or "supporting the orthodox dynasty"、Using radical revolution or improvement improvement to promote social change。

　Socialist or Capitalism

Left and right wings are given clear ideological positioning and political and economic connotation，It is a matter of the second half of the 19th century。Starting from the wave of 1848 revolution in Europe，Industrialization、Democratization、International Workers' Movement、The Quartet of Nationalist Movement is interweaving，bet365 live casino games The basic pattern of modern Western politics is truly shaped。Awarding socialism is still in favor of capitalism and liberalism，Become the new left and right division standard。Focusing on the expansion of the power of the democratic system that expands the right to the crowd、State intervention limit and effectiveness of national intervention and effectiveness around the national economic and social functions，Two -dimensional coordinates that constitute a political and economic disputes。Modern political spectrum becomes rich in configuration，The general right to election with women, including women's election, will be implemented in most Western countries，The dispute between the left and right is more and more focused on the state -owned economy、Welfare System、Fiscal policy and other issues related to the degree of intervention of the country in the economic and social field。Compared to the first generation of the first generation of "radical or conservative"，The second -generation left and right field standards that are based on the key category of socialism and capitalism obviously present the following characteristics。

First，The left and right divisions have a relatively clear social class or class interest.。mid -19th century，Basically completed the British Industrial Revolution，The industrialization process of the continental countries is in the ascendant。Industrialization and urbanization brings a sharp change in production and lifestyle，It has also exacerbated class contradictions and differentiation of the rich and poor。In this background，Left -wing socialist，Actively promote the International Workers' Movement、Women's Liberation Movement，Proposal to safeguard labor rights、Increase social security、Inhibit the gap between the rich and the poor。and the bourgeoisie and the right of right -wing liberals and conservatives of the bourgeoisie and the producer class，Emphasize the maintenance of private property rights and market Bet365 app download economy，Proposal to let go of freedom，Under the premise of industrial advantages in the country，Promote free trade。

Second，Gradually implemented with the right of general election，Democratic system for the Democratic Democratic system has gone through a hundred years of twists and turns，In the first half of the 20th century，Political left and right points further refine。Social Democrats of "Middle Left" and liberals of "Middle Right" are getting together，Promote the road of parliament，Remove the violent revolution，Each and radical left wing、Traditional conservatives and extreme right wing open distance。Especially in the 1930s, the rise of Keynesianism and the New Deal Liberalism on both sides of the Atlantic，Further strengthened left in Western countries、The convergence of the political force in the middle and right political forces on the political and economic position。

third，In addition to the main axis of the contradiction between labor and capital，Nationalism with the core concern of the pursuit of national independence and advantageous position，Opposition to elite monopoly、Civilian (or civilianism emphasizing the interests of civilian interests、populism)，To maintain Catholic beliefs、Seeking a new path of socialism and capitalism to reconcile class contradictions in Christian democracy (and communityism)，Since the second half of the 19th century。In different periods、Different countries，These variety of doctrines and claims，Tour between the traditional left and right points，It is difficult to generalize。

Fourth，In the first half of the 20th century, the right -wing extremists have been provoked in the first half of the 20th century.。to the mid -20th century，Traditional left and right points in Europe and the United States，In fact, it has been left in the left、Mid -right is the main formulation faction and the counterpart between the left and extreme right wings。

　　Whether the left and right points are failed

Starting in the 1950s，European and American countries have ushered in a rare 20 -year economic prosperity period，Social bet365 best casino games living standards increase，The welfare system gradually improves。After the climax of the American civil rights movement，The Western "New Left Wing", which is becoming increasingly stronger in post -modern colors, gradually begins to replace the old leftist。Real challenges in the face of economic stagflation and petroleum crisis，、Mid -right is the main formulation school starting from the 1970s，Gradually adopted the emphasis on free markets in 20 years、"New Liberal" economic policy proposition to oppose state intervention。After the Cold War was finally ended in a dramatic way，The fans of neo -liberalism dominate the economic globalization，While Gao Ge has entered 20 years, it has also drank the rich and poor gaps，So as to give birth to the primary color anti -building、Anti -elite、Anti -globalized populist political phenomenon。It can be said，From the 1950s to date，Political forces in Europe and the United States take about 20 years as a reincarnation，Affected by changes in international structure and more domestic contradictions，Left and right points seem to be more diverse on the one hand，On the other hand, it seems itchy for boots、Unrealistic，Eventually leading to the increasingly alienated elite and the people、The "re -blog" tendency that is difficult to unite social consensus。

First，New Left Wing replaced old leftist，Criticize the realistic and economical of reality，Cultural reflection and postmodern controversy caused by empty cave，In fact, "Popularization" achieved "de -political"。After the war Western capitalism, it has obviously moved to the "hybrid economy" form，Coupled with the restrictions of the Cold War Environment，Makes traditional left -wing attraction in Western society.。The emergence of the new left wing is both the situation，It also conforms to the value steering of the post -industrial society。but but，The new left wing is becoming more and more reflecting the concept of specific social groups、Value first hodgepodge，instead of grasping key issues、Give Bet365 lotto review the reliable political force of the solution。

Second，New Right Wing led by new liberalism，The purpose of "re -marketing" in the 1980s has achieved the purpose of dragging the British and American economy out of the quagmire，It laid the foundation for the great development of economic globalization since the 1990s。But whether it is an international financial institution that adheres to the "Washington Consensus" for developing countries for developing countries，Still strongly promoting the World Trade Organization of Trade Liberalization，Both the gap between the rich and the poor of the rapidly expanding society and the global north and south gaps。The periodic of the market economy is cyclical，Relax of the global financial market turbulent brought by financial supervision，Study the opposite emotions of people and elite people from all countries，At the same time, it also exacerbates contradictions between the country。

third，The populist phenomenon that is constantly emerging around the world in the 21st century，It is becoming more and more difficult to define the political spectrum of the left and right fields。To be precise，In the various phenomena of populism by the media at the moment，A considerable part is just a carefully manipulated election mobilization strategy。Just，Regardless of the middle or right，No matter the new left or the new right wing，It seems that it is difficult to overcome the thinking of social elites，Try to manipulate public opinion，It is also limited by various "political correctness" considerations，Can't give an effective improvement plan。

In short，As the basic spectrum of people observing modern politics，Left and right division goes through three generations，It seems difficult to help people understand the new pattern of politics in various countries and the new trend of democratic democracy。The root cause，The social and political development stage that can correspond to the left and right points，I am afraid that it has quietly passed。Bet365 lotto review Since the 1990s，Economic globalization profoundly transformed the world economy、The basic appearance of political and social relations in various countries，also brought a variety of new problems。Jump out of the thinking fixed formula of the left and right points，Perhaps it will help people face all kinds of complex challenges。

　(The author is an associate professor at the School of International Relations at Peking University、Director of the China and World Research Center of Peking University)