In the development of civilization over three thousand years，The ancient Egyptian economy was always dominated by the economic form with the redistribution system as its core。In addition to a high degree of authoritarian centralized rule and a strong religious complex，The fundamental reason lies in the thinking of the Egyptians，That is, the economic concept that does not take profit maximization as the purpose of transaction。bet365 live casino games did not value the value of the goods themselves，Causing them to only focus on their own needs when conducting trading activities。As long as you can get the items you need，They can exchange their items to each other，No matter whether the value of their own items far exceeds the items they exchanged。Driven by this economic concept，Ancient Egyptian economic system shows its uniqueness。

　　The pricing bet365 live casino games confusing

bet365 live casino games valued needs rather than gains when trading，There is no standard unit of account，As a result, various pricing units are converted to each other，The conversion unit is confusing。bet365 live casino games never minted coins，Their trading system was initially based on barter，With the expansion of transaction scope and scale，Barter exchange gradually developed into currency-barter exchange。Currency-Barter is the transition from the barter system to the monetary system，It is an improvement in the barter system。Normally，In the latter exchange system, an item or an abstract unit is used as the unit of account。Although this unit of account itself can be considered "currency"，But its trading system is not a monetary system。

The ancient Egyptians usually had three units of measurement: Snuyin、Deburn Copper and Hull Grain。From a functional perspective，Currency is a medium of exchange、Generally accepted by people、Items used to pay for goods, services and debts。The three units of account in bet365 live casino games basically meet the functional standards of currency，They are all used to estimate prices，actually used as currency。As to whether they are currencies，It depends on the user’s concept。Although all three units of account have the function of currency，But in the eyes of the Egyptians，They still have the properties of the item itself，Not for actual payment，But for relative estimation。

Among these three pricing units，Hull grain is most frequently used，Because grains are easy to split，Whether it is small trade or large trade，You can use it to calculate bet365 live casino games。Snuyin is the most abstract unit of account，It is equivalent to a certain amount of silver，But in actual payment, it is often replaced by some kind of silver item。Normally，Three pricing units can be converted。The exchange ratio of Hull grain and Deben copper is relatively fixed。Generally，1 Hull grain equals 2 Deben copper。Even when grain bet365 live casino games fluctuate，This conversion basis has not changed much。But，Between Snuyin and Hull Grain、The conversion ratio between Snook silver and Deben copper is uncertain。

Whether these three pricing units fully have monetary functions，It also depends on their application scope in society。Throughout the history of bet365 live casino games，Taxes are basically paid in kind，And grains are often used as a means of payment。Grain payment here，The emphasis is on its basic attribute - food，And emphasizes its circulation attribute as currency。The fine is also paid in kind，And it is an item of the same quality as the object being compensated，For example, a thief steals someone else’s linen clothing，The compensation was three pieces of linen clothing，as punishment。Dowry and bride price are also paid in kind，It is a relatively pure barter。Of course，Regardless of tax、Compensation or marriage，There are situations where “currency” is used for payment。Yeoman farmers during the New Kingdom paid taxes in gold，The fine was also paid with items of equal value to the items stolen。As for dowry and bride price，There is also a phenomenon where all payments are made in Hull grain。Only when real money starts circulating，Wedding items have only begun to be paid for with currency。However，That was already a phenomenon in the late Egyptian civilization, especially during the Ptolemaic dynasty。

The conversion ratios between all pricing units are set by the state。But，When the country sets the conversion ratio，What is considered is whether the tax can be paid in full and smoothly，Instead of making them easier to circulate，Promote trade development。Therefore，Trade in bet365 live casino games was not developed enough，One of the reasons is insufficient state support。

　　The price bet365 live casino games is unstable

Confusing pricing units will inevitably lead to an unstable price bet365 live casino games。A farmer from Memphis or near Fayoum in the Twelfth Dynasty，Named Hekanacht，We learned from his letters home，He desires to do business with his neighbors and others，To maximize family income。He has the ability to pay the rent in advance，Can also lend a large amount of food，The goods at your disposal are copper、Oil and self-woven linen。These items are all items he intends to sell，Because the quantity far exceeds the needs of the family。In addition，He also has 35 cows。Because he is the patriarch，He also needs to give each family member, including his mother, a relatively fixed monthly routine。His family operating model is actually the epitome of the national redistribution bet365 live casino games。Herkanacht is very economical，He once encouraged a family to sell their cattle，Because he predicted that "the price of cattle will rise by half"。Visible，Item prices are constantly changing，The ratio of item exchange is also constantly changing。Late New Kingdom，The ratio of silver to copper in Thebes fell from 1:100 to 1:60。This may be because tomb robbing was prevalent at that time，A large amount of stolen money flows into society。

The Egyptian price system includes both the price of labor and the price of raw materials，The fluctuation of labor and raw material prices also causes the price of items to fluctuate。Then，What role does the state play in setting prices？The bet365 live casino games Egyptian government did not actually manipulate prices，Item prices are adjusted by themselves。However，At least during the period when authoritarian centralized rule was intensified，Because government agencies need to pay salaries、Collect taxes、Storage and distribution of emergency items，The state still plays a vital role in maintaining the overall level of commodity prices in the entire society。

In bet365 live casino games，Pricing of raw materials and other goods，From grain to maid，Due to the slow speed of transaction level and information exchange，Their price patterns are irregular and unpredictable。If both parties to the transaction understand each other，Friendship and responsibility will restrain their ambitions for greater profits。From extant ancient Egyptian price data，We cannot derive a relatively stable price pattern。Grain prices are generally prone to instability，Therefore，Large-scale storage of grain became a common practice in bet365 live casino games to prevent large fluctuations in grain prices。No matter in the period of peace and fertility (such as the Amarna period)，Still in a period of famine and turmoil (such as the First Intermediate Period)，This practice exists at the national system level，Also exists in individual behavior。

New Kingdom Period，Grain prices are generally stable at 1-2 debens per Hull。Late 20th Dynasty，Grain prices in western Thebes are extremely unstable。The reign of Ramses VII to IX，Food prices once soared to 8-12 debens per hull。However，This is different bet365 live casino games the "inflation" of modern society，Because the prices of other commodities have not experienced similar fluctuations。But in a document，A woman claimed that “during a famine in the year of the hyena，I bought barley with silver”。This reveals the period of famine，Food prices soared to the point of being measured in dollars。

　bet365 live casino games transactions kept bet365 live casino games

Confused pricing units and unstable price bet365 live casino games，Didn’t stop the Egyptians from maximizing their wealth。Although we cannot find a word in Egyptian that can be translated as "profit"，The Egyptians did not regard maximizing "profit" as a criterion for success when conducting trade，But this does not stop Egyptians from chasing the most favorable prices，And has a strong business sense。

However，The pursuit of wealth is contrary to Egyptian ethics and moral concepts。As early as the Old Kingdom，The "Edict to Qagemni" once warned the Egyptians not to be greedy，The pursuit of wealth should be moderate: "A glass of water can suppress thirst，A mouthful of vanilla can purify the soul，A good deed can replace virtue，A little means a lot。”Therefore，The Egyptians’ pursuit of wealth is not a grand one，But secretly、quietly，This can be seen in the inscriptions and murals on the tombs of bet365 live casino games Egyptian officials。Egyptians often show off their political achievements and generosity，And in reference to their wealth，Except for the part of the wealth given by the royal family in recognition of his political achievements，No mention of other sources of wealth。We infer，This part of the unspecified wealth was obtained through private trading activities。

In addition，Because the inscriptions on official tombs are all written in autobiographical form，Therefore，Their parents must be mentioned。However，Some officials describe their fathers without giving them any titles，Indicates that his parents did not hold any official position。But these officials have very good careers，To receive a good education and embark on an official career requires financial support from the parents。These fathers who have no official positions but bet365 live casino games，Probably a businessman，Their bet365 live casino games is the profits earned through private transactions。

The Egyptian accounts of merchants are also very obscure。The inscription on the tomb of Hekeb from the First Intermediate Period reads: "In this city，In the amount of every kind of wealth，I have surpassed any of my peers。When I gain something through my own efforts，People will say 'He is the one who never steals from others。’Many supplied the whole city with barley from Upper Egypt，And I loaned it the grain of Egypt，And loaned barley to the northern (Lower Egypt) cities in Upper Egypt。After satisfying my own town’s oil supply，I also provide oil to Kabu State。I made a 40-cubit boat and a cattle barge，Ferry those without boats during flood season。When the manager counts my cattle，He discovered that my wealth had increased。”Although Hekeb did not explicitly say that he was a merchant，But his active trading activities are enough to reveal that he is a well-liked and successful businessman。Another tomb inscription from the First Intermediate Period has a similar description，The author of his biography is also a successful businessman。Same，While he was recording his trading activities and making a lot of profits，Also did not forget to show off his generosity and good deeds。Visible，In bet365 live casino games，Just having wealth does not gain social recognition，Only those who put their wealth into society can be respected by people。

New Kingdom Period，Merchant is no longer implicitly mentioned，They began to appear in society as a fixed occupation。Late New Kingdom，The merchants depicted in the fourth volume of the Anastas Papyrus not only had wealth，And no longer feel ashamed about the wealth gained from doing business，On the contrary, they are proud of it。However，After this businessman gained wealth from doing business，Invest it in agriculture and livestock instead。This explains，No matter how active private trade is，Nothing can change that agriculture was the main economy of bet365 live casino games、The fact that a redistributive planned economy is the core of its economic system。

In summary，The authoritarian centralized rule of bet365 live casino games and the social ethics and moral propaganda of moderate pursuit of wealth，Provides the soil for the Egyptian economic concept that the pursuit of profit maximization is not the purpose of transactions。bet365 live casino games always stayed at the level of barter exchange，This leads to confusing pricing units and an unstable price system。However，The ancient Egyptians had a hidden instinct to chase huge wealth，When the redistributive economic system cannot meet their daily needs，Private trading activities are inevitable。Just similar to ancient China，bet365 live casino games was also a society that focused on agriculture and suppressed commerce，The wealth gained through private trade eventually returned to agriculture。

​​(This article is a phased result of the National Social Science Fund’s major project “Research on the Compilation of Administrative Documents of the New Kingdom in bet365 live casino games” (18ZDA206)

(Author’s affiliation: Department of bet365 live casino games, College of Liberal Arts, Shanghai University)