Editor’s note: Guan Wenfa’s most eye-catching contribution to the study of Qing history，It is a study bet365 Play online games transformation bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty centered on Emperor Jiaqing。In this regard，His earliest representative work is "Comments on Emperor Jiaqing" published at the "Second National Academic Symposium on Qing History" in 1983，The first comprehensive and in-depth study of Emperor Jiaqing, a key figure in the important transition period from prosperity to decline bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty，Zang does not know his gains and losses，Causing widespread attention in the academic community。

　　Guan Wenfa (1931-2016)，People from Nanhai, Guangdong，Famous expert on Ming and Qing history，Taught at Wuhan University and South China Normal University during his lifetime，Former professor and head bet365 Play online games History Department of Wuhan University、Member bet365 Play online games Academic Committee of Wuhan University and Head bet365 Play online games History Branch、Member bet365 Play online games Degree Committee of Wuhan University and Chairman bet365 Play online games History Branch、Vice Chairman of Hubei Provincial Historical Society、Senior Professor bet365 Play online games School of History and Culture of South China Normal University and member bet365 Play online games Academic Committee bet365 Play online games University、Consultant bet365 Play online games Guangdong Chinese Society for Social and Economic History。

Guan Wenfa devoted his life to the teaching and research of ancient Chinese history，Broad vision，Rigorous scholarship，Profound academic attainments，Multiple achievements in the field of Ming and bet365 Play online games history research，Won the praise of academic circles。

Guan Wenfa’s main academic accumulation in the early stage was focused on the study of Ming history。He conducted in-depth and systematic research on the institutional history bet365 Play online games Ming Dynasty，His representative works include "On the Formation and Development bet365 Play online games Cabinet System in the Ming Dynasty", "On the Governors in the Ming Dynasty", "A Study bet365 Play online games Hanlin System in the Ming Dynasty" and other papers，On this basis, he published the academic monograph "Research on the Political System bet365 Play online games Ming Dynasty"。While focusing on the study of Ming history，Guan Wenfa expands research horizons，The study of Qing history became the main content of his later scholarship。In the field of Qing history research，His main academic contributions are reflected in two aspects，First, conduct focused research on some major issues related to the history bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty，The second is a systematic and in-depth study bet365 Play online games decline and transformation bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty centered on the study of Emperor Jiaqing。

　　Special bet365 Play online games rich in insights

In terms of special research，Guan Wenfa first conducted a unique and insightful discussion on "the nature bet365 Play online games war when Qing troops entered Guan", a major academic issue in the field of Qing history research in the 1980s。The Third National Academic Symposium on Qing History was held in Changchun in 1985，He gave an academic report at the conference titled "On the Ethnic Relations in Ancient my country and the Nature bet365 Play online games War bet365 Play online games Qing Troops Entering the Pass - Also Commenting on the "Unification War" Theory"，I believe that the entry of Qing troops into the Pass cannot simply be viewed as a war of unification。Based on the main contradictions in society at that time and the changes in the basic camps bet365 Play online games warring parties，There is an important change，That is, the year from the entry of Qing soldiers to the death of Li Zicheng，The nature bet365 Play online games war is the struggle between Manchu and Han landlords to jointly suppress the peasant army；Nearly twenty years from the fall bet365 Play online games Hongguan regime to Li Laiheng’s failure in resisting the Qing Dynasty in Kuidong，The nature of war is a national war of oppression and anti-oppression。Qing soldiers enter the customs，Finally established the Qing Dynasty’s rule over the country，It does not mean that the nature bet365 Play online games war where the Qing troops entered the Pass is a unification war。This does not deny that after the Qing Dynasty established its rule over the country，The positive role it plays in promoting the further development of our unified multi-ethnic country。His important conclusion，Profound influence in academia。

The second is regional history research。1987，Guan Wenfa was invited to attend the "International Academic Symposium on Regional Social and Economic History bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty" co-hosted by the famous historians Fu Yiling and Ye Xian'en，An academic report on "On the Development of Hankou Commerce in the Early Qing Dynasty" was given at the meeting。Guan Wenfa first looked at the historical factors of Hankou’s commercial development、The background conditions and geographical advantages have conducted an in-depth discussion on the reasons for the rise of Hankou’s business，At the same time, the business structure of Hankou was also examined、City nature and merchant organization，Point out that Hankou has transformed its geographical advantages into commercial advantages，Therefore, it has extremely strong cohesion and radiation power for products from all over the world，Its coverage is quite wide。He proposed: “The business gangs of various provinces in Hankou play an important role in the formation of Hankou’s market environment，It has indeed played an immeasurable role in Hankou becoming a national central city。"Ye Xianen once spoke highly of it，Considers that this research result "provides an important reference coordinate for the economic development and urban form research bet365 Play online games "Four Major Towns in the World" in the early Qing Dynasty"。

For the rules and regulations bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty，Guan Wenfa also has unique insights。1998，He published his masterpiece "Review of River Governors in the Early Qing Dynasty"，Detailed investigation bet365 Play online games history of river governors in the Qing Dynasty、River Governor System and River Governor Selection。He focused on the strategic goals and significance of setting up river governors in the Qing Dynasty，A profound analysis and summary bet365 Play online games achievements and failures of successive river governors in the early Qing Dynasty，Point out that the establishment bet365 Play online games river governor system was adapted to river management in the Qing Dynasty、Daohuai、The purpose of coordination and comprehensive management bet365 Play online games three economic and transportation aspects，marks that the history of river management in our country has entered a new historical stage。This article provides an example for the study bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty code system in terms of theory and method，Fully reflects his rigorous and meticulous style of governing history。In addition，Guan Wenfa’s important Qing history monographs include "Analysis bet365 Play online games Nature of Cai Qian’s Maritime Armed Group in the Mid-Qing Dynasty", etc.。

　　Research on the transformation bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty centered on Jiaqing

Guan Wenfa’s most eye-catching contribution to the study of Qing history，It is a study bet365 Play online games transformation bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty centered on Emperor Jiaqing。In this regard，His earliest representative work is "Comments on Emperor Jiaqing" published at the "Second National Academic Symposium on Qing History" in 1983，The first comprehensive and in-depth study of Emperor Jiaqing, a key figure in the important transition period from prosperity to decline bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty，Zang does not know his gains and losses，Causing widespread attention in the academic community。1986，Guan Wenfa was invited to attend the "International Academic Symposium on Qing History" hosted by the famous historian Bai Shouyi，Published his masterpiece "On the Foreign Policy bet365 Play online games Jiaqing Dynasty in the Qing Dynasty"。Using the contents of these two papers as the central clue，Guan Wenfa looks at domestic governance and foreign policy from two aspects，Started the research process on Emperor Jiaqing and the decline and transformation bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty。

In terms of domestic governance，From a long-term historical perspective，Discuss how the Jiaqing and Daoguang period changed from the prosperous age of Kangxi and Qianlong to the object of plunder and bullying by Western powers，leading to a century of humiliation in modern China。He focuses on the people and events during the reign of Emperor Jiaqing，Asking about how the internal body bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty transformed and transformed，Interrogating both from the perspective of system and system，The process and twists and turns bet365 Play online games institutional mechanism’s role are also explained based on human performance。

We know，The transition from prosperity to decline bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty during the Jiadao period，Actually rooted in the Qianlong period。He pointed out clearly in "Comments on Emperor Jiaqing"，Emperor Qianlong left Emperor Jiaqing in a situation of exhaustion。First，Qianlong’s “Ten Complete Martial Arts” in his self-esteem of his great achievements，Contributing to a large consumption bet365 Play online games national treasury stock。"National funds，I don’t realize how much it is after a sudden increase，The special branches bet365 Play online games year will continue"，Putting huge pressure on subsequent finances。Second，The “Southern Tour” consumes the financial resources of Southeast Asia。Mid Qianlong，The inventory of silver in the Ministry of Accounts reaches more than 70 million taels，The most prosperous period in the early Qing Dynasty。Six southern tours due to "envy of Jiangnan"，Aggravating consumables and nuisance。"The destruction of domestic wealth，Bad folk customs，Based on this。”Third，Chongxin Heshen，Corrupt official administration。The military expenses at that time，Civil Engineering Tour，A yearly income of hundreds of millions。Qianlong Suo Zhi He Shen，The Governor of He Shensuo。Exploitation at every level，People’s livelihood is difficult，“The officials force the people to rebel”，Promoted the White Lotus Rebellion。The decline bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty，Started in the late Qianlong period。

thereafter，He successively published "About "He Kun's Fall，A series of important papers such as Questioning the Problem of "Feasting People in Jiaqing", "Review of Jiaqing's Succession", "Review of Jiaqing's Official Governance", "Trial Comment on Jiaqing's "Broad Opening of Opinion" and "Hong Liangji's Letter Incident"，From the perspective of internal affairs，A more in-depth analysis bet365 Play online games gains and losses of Jiaqing’s administrative governance，Drawed many convincing conclusions。First，Execute He Shen and confiscate his home，Not just for “eating” to gain economic benefits，It is intended to purge political discipline，Regulate officials。Second，Jiaqing sought to improve official administration and national governance by "opening up the avenues of speech"，However, the punishment of Hong Liangji in the "Hong Liangji Letter Incident" in the fourth year of Jiaqing (1799) reflects the limitations of wide open speech under centralized authoritarianism，The official administration also failed to handle the Heshen case as well as its colleagues，Loss in tolerance。Third，Even if he takes the throne, he will be punished，In the 14th year of Jiaqing, there was another concentrated punishment of corruption cases，But for the entire Jiaqing court official administration situation，Guan Wenfa summarized it as "soft"，Disobeying the law、Lack of strict enforcement，Often end with the admonishment of "I won't do it next time"，It completely failed to realize Hong Liangji’s wish of imitating Yongzheng’s strictness，"Let the officials govern and make the people happy"，Then imitate Emperor Kangxi’s generosity，"Transfer Customs"。Jiaqing is faced with three major dilemmas: "military affairs", "river and canal affairs" and "official administration"，Jiaqing, who was in the decline bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty and was the "Lord of Defenders"，Although there are some efforts to improve the administration of officials，Just reluctantly，Follow your responsibilities，Poor governance is the inevitable result bet365 Play online games long-lasting authoritarian system。

In terms of foreign policy，Guan Wenfa opens his horizons，Starting from the various political and economic trends in Western Europe that led the world's development direction at that time and finally achieved the success of modern transformation，Summary bet365 Play online games gains and losses bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty’s system and administration at the same time。

The article "On the Foreign Policy bet365 Play online games Jiaqing Dynasty in the Qing Dynasty" written by Guan Wenfa，After discussing “policies towards neighboring countries”、After the Catholic missionary policy to China，It also focused on "foreign trade and the prohibition of opium" and "policy toward Britain" that influenced the subsequent direction of Chinese history。About foreign trade policy，He made it clear，Based on a self-sufficient natural economy，The Qing Dynasty adhered to a conservative and negative trade policy。Since the late Qianlong period，Due to the declining national strength，The internal and external situation is unstable，With the purpose of "preventing barbarians"，Aggravating this conservative trade policy。During the Jiaqing period，This conservative trade policy is highlighted in，First，Strict restrictions on treaty ports，Illegal expansion is not allowed。Second，Strict restrictions on the quantity of export goods。Third，Obstruct things that facilitate operations。Due to various restrictions and constraints，The Jiaqing Dynasty’s foreign trade went from bad to worse。Statistics from Guangdong Customs，Seventeenth Year of Jiaqing，The import price is more than 12.07 million taels，Export price is more than 15.1 million taels；The import price in the 18th year of Jiaqing was more than 12.63 million taels，Export price is more than 12.93 million taels。Minimal trade surplus，The trade balance changed in a direction unfavorable to the Qing Dynasty。

Jiaqing was an early and resolute anti-smoking sect。China’s long-term trade surplus，Foreign businessmen are supported by Western colonial forces，Increasing opium exports to China year by year in order to achieve trade balance，4054 boxes in the fifty-fifth year of Qianlong’s reign (1790)。Jiaqing realized that opium "has caused great harm to customs and people's hearts"，In addition to ordering the censors bet365 Play online games five cities to conduct strict investigations，Special edict "The Produced Places of Fujian and Guangdong，At the same time, the governor will check and ban，Determine its source”。Jiaqing will focus on opium ban in Guangdong Province，It serves the purpose of blocking the source to contain the flow。June bet365 Play online games 22nd year of Jiaqing，An American merchant ship was robbed in Guangdong，The governor of Guangdong, Jiang Youzhu, not only executed robbers，And "all seized smoke mud"，The committee members were transported to the front door of Yiguan and burned，To eliminate the source of disadvantages”。This was the first public destruction of opium in the history bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty。Jiaqing’s firm stance on banning opium，The spread of opium has been temporarily curbed。

Portugal during the Jiaqing period、Spain、The Dutch and other colonial powers have declined，The power of Britain, France, Russia and other countries is rising，But the world is in an era of British hegemony，Jiaqing’s policy toward Britain reflects its ability to handle foreign relations。The fifty-eighth year of Qianlong，Macartney Ambassador，Trade request failed。From now on，The trade conflict between Britain and the Qing government，It is associated with the threat of colonialism，Intensifying。Jiaqing lacks a correct understanding bet365 Play online games international situation and world affairs，First，To Britain in the distant Atlantic Ocean，Think of yourself as a heavenly kingdom。Second，Always be wary of Britain。For British trade，His name，"There are English people，His reputation in the West is deceitful，In recent decades，Always have the ambition to encroach"。Do not allow the escort warships to enter at will，Remain extremely vigilant against Britain。

Thirteenth year of Jiaqing、Nineteen years，British soldiers or British speedboats in Macau、Trouble in Huangpu Port，bet365 Play online games resolutely expelled them。Twenty-one years of Jiaqing，Amesh envoy to China，Both sides adhere to different "etiquette" because of their differences，The Amesh mission was sent back home without seeing Emperor Jiaqing。Anyway，Jiaqing’s foreign policy prioritizes national defense and public security，And trade is limited to the narrow trade area of ​​Guangzhou。

Guan Wenfa based on a systematic special study on the internal affairs and diplomacy during the Jiaqing period，Finally published the academic monograph "The Biography of Emperor Jiaqing"，Becomes a major academic achievement in the field of Qing history research，It has the significance of filling the research gaps in the transformation period bet365 Play online games Qing Dynasty。Today，Scholars use Chinese and Western archives to write new monographs (such as "The Cornerstone of Modern Banking in China—The Guarantee System of Guangzhou Thirteen Banks and the Origin of Bank Deposit Insurance"，China Financial Press 2020 Edition)，Let us know，The era Jiaqing lived in，Western countries taking the British Industrial Revolution as a turning point，From private business groups to state power, the modern transformation bet365 Play online games nature bet365 Play online games system is being realized，They will industrial civilization、Combining overseas trade with modern political system，Planning to colonize and plunder China。China under Jiaqing’s rule is still under a self-sufficient authoritarian centralized rule，The collision of two worlds，The failure bet365 Play online games Qing Empire is inevitable。Guan Wenfa’s pioneering research，Provides an important academic step for us to have a clearer understanding of China’s transition from prosperity to decline in the Qing Dynasty。

　　(Author’s affiliation: School of Finance, Renmin University of bet365 Play online games)