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　　Guan Wenfa (1931-2016)，Nanhai, Guangdong，Famous Ming and Qing History Expert，Teaching in Wuhan University and South China Normal University during his lifetime，Former professor and director of history at Wuhan University、Member of the Academic Committee of Wuhan University and head of the History Branch、Member of the degree committee and chairman of the Wuhan University Degree Committee、Vice Chairman of the History Society of Hubei Province、Senior professor and member of the academic committee of the School of History and Culture of South China Normal University、Counselor of the China Social Economic History Research Association of Guangdong Province。

Guan Wenfa has been committed to teaching and research in ancient Chinese history.，Visual field open，Strict academic，Academic accomplishments deep，Most of the research fields in the history of the Ming and Qing Dynasties，Winnamed praise from the academic community。

Guan Wenfa's early main academic accumulation concentrated in the study of Ming history。He conducted deep and systematic research in the history of the Ming Dynasty，Its masterpieces include "The Formation and Development of the Cabinet System of the Ming Dynasty", "The Director of the Ming Dynasty", "The Examination of the Hanlin System of the Ming Dynasty"，Based on this, the academic monograph "Research on the Political System of the Ming Dynasty"。While focusing on the research of Ming history，Guan Wenfa expand research field，Qing history research has become the main content of his later studies。In the field of history of the Qing Dynasty，His main academic contribution is reflected in two aspects，First, focus on some major issues of the history of the Qing Dynasty.，Second, a systematic in -depth research on the transformation of the middle decline in the middle of the Qing Dynasty with the research of Emperor Jiaqing。

　　Special research with insightful opinions

In terms of special research，Guan Wenfa first conducted unique discussion on the major academic issues in the field of Qing history in the 1980s in the 1980s.。The Third National Qing History Symposium in 1985 was held in Changchun，He made an academic report of "Discuss the Nationally Relationships of Ancient Ethnic Relations and the Entry -Global War of the bet365 best casino games Clearance of the Clearance of the Clearance of the" Realing War "theory" at the conference，I believe that the clearing soldiers cannot be briefly regarded as a united war。According to the changes in the main contradictions of the society at that time and the basic camp of the battle between the two parties,，There is an important change among them，That is the year from the Qing Dynasty to Li Zicheng's death，The nature of the war is the struggle of the Mandarin Landlord to suppress the Farmers' Army; from the annihilation of the Hongguan regime to Li Laiheng's failure of the anti -Qing Dynasty for nearly 20 years，The nature of the war is the national war with oppression and oppression。Clear Bing Entering Customs，Finally established the rule of the Qing Dynasty to the country，It is not equal to the nature of the war of war entering the customs.。This does not deny that the Qing Dynasty was established after the establishment of the Qing Dynasty，The positive role played for further development of multi -ethnic countries that promotes the unified multi -ethnic countries。His important judgments，Far -influence in the academic world。

Followed by regional history research。1987，Guan Wenfa was invited to attend the "Qing Dynasty Regional Social Economic History International Academic Discussion Conference"，The academic report of "Discussing the Development of Hankou Commercial in the Early Qing Dynasty" at the meeting。Guan Wenfa first from the historical factors of the business development of Hankou、Background conditions and geographical advantages The reasons for the rise of Hankou's commercial rise，At the same time, I also examined Hankou's business subject structure、Urban nature and businessman organization，It is pointed out that Hankou is transformed into a business advantage with its geographical advantage，Therefore, the cohesion and radiation of products from various places are strong，Its coverage is quite wide。He proposed: "The business gangs in Hankou in Hankou for the formation of the Hankou market environment，It is indeed an unavailable role for Hankou's becoming a national central city。"Ye Xianen has given a high degree of evaluation，I believe that the results of this research "provide important reference coordinates for the economic development and urban formal research of the" Four Great Towns in the World Bet365 app download "In the Early Qing Dynasty"。

For the Qing Dynasty Code System，Guan Wenfa also has unique insights。1998，He published a masterpiece Bet365 app download "In the Early Qing Dynasty River Supervisor"，Detailed inspection of the Qing Dynasty He Governor's Democratic Revolution、He Supervisor System and Selection of He Governor。He focused on the strategic goals and significance of setting up the Governor of the Qing Dynasty，A profound analysis and summary of the results of the governance of He Governor in the early Qing Dynasty，Point out that the setting of the He supervision system is to adapt to the Qing Dynasty、Guide Huai、The purpose of coordination and comprehensive governance of Jiyun，It marks that the history of my country's rivers has entered a new historical stage。This article provides examples for the study of the Qing Dynasty classics in theoretical and methods，fully reflect his rigorous and meticulous history of governance。，The important theory of Qing history of Guan Wenfa also includes "Analysis of the Nature Differential Analysis of Cai Guanhai Armed Group in the middle of the Qing Dynasty"。

　　Research on Qing Dynasty transformation with Jiaqing as the center

Guan Wenfa's contribution to the most notable research on Qing history，Research on the transformation of the Qing Dynasty centered on Emperor Jiaqing。In this regard，His earliest masterpiece was "Evaluation of the Emperor Jiaqing" in 1983 at the "Emperor of the Emperor Qing History of the National Qing History" in 1983，For the first time, the key character of the Qing Dynasty from the important turning period of the Qing Dynasty, Jia Qingdi, a comprehensive and in -depth study，Whether Zang La La La La La La La La La La La La Men，Arrived widespread attention in the academic community。1986，Guan Wenfa was invited to attend the "Qing History International Academic Discussion Conference" hosted by the famous historian Bai Shouyi，Published by "Explanation of the Foreign Policy of the Jiaqing Dynasty in the Qing Dynasty"。The content of these two papers is the central clue，Guan Wenfa from two aspects: domestic governance and foreign policy，Research on the transformation of Emperor Jiaqing and the decline in the middle of the Qing Dynasty。

In terms of domestic governance，Start from a long -term perspective of history，Discuss how to convert from Kanggan Shengshi to the object of the Western powers to plunder and bullying from the Kanggan Shengli period，History of centennial humiliation in modern China。He focuses on the people and things of the Emperor Jiaqing's administration，Questioning how the body inside the Qing Dynasty was transformed and converted，Torture from the system Bet365 lotto review and system，Development and twists and turns of the institutional mechanism played from the manner of the system and mechanisms。

We know，From the prosperity of the Qing Dynasty from the Qing Dynasty during the Jiadao period，Actual rooting in the Qianlong period。He clearly pointed out in "Evaluation of Emperor Jiaqing"，The Emperor Qianlong left the Emperor Jiaqing with a bad game。First，Qianlong's "10 Martial Arts"，Make the State Treasury accumulate a lot of consumption。"State Capital，Suddenly unknowing it，The year -old branch is a successor "，Bring huge pressure to the subsequent finances。2，"South Tour" consumes Southeast Finance。Qianlong Middle Leaf，Households inventory of more than 70 million silver，It is the most abundant period in the early Qing Dynasty。Six Southern Tour for "Envy Jiangnan"，Extract consumables and disturbing people。"殚 殚 殚 殚 殚，Bads of folk customs，solid base here。"" Third，Pet letter Hey，corruption of officials。The expenses of the military at that time，Civil Our view，Farewell to get a careless billions。Qianlong Suo Kami，The governor of Hexi Suo。Dipping layers，Minsheng is more difficult，"Official forced the people against the people"，Promoting Bai Lianjiao Uprising。Qing Dynasty decline，Starting in the late Qianlong。

，He has published "about the fall of He Kun，The question of the question of Jiaqing is full "" "Jiaqing's position", "Jiaqing Official Review", "Trial evaluation of Jiaqing's" Guangkai Road "and" Hong Liangji Incident "and other important papers，From the perspective of internal affairs，More deeply to dissect the gains and losses of the administrative governance of Jiaqing，A lot of convincing conclusions are obtained。First，Destiny and concubine and copy home，Not just seeking economic benefits for "eating"，It is intended to use politics to purify the outline，Tori officials。2，Jiaqing uses the "wide open words" to seek improvement of government governance and improvement of national governance，But the four years of Jiaqing (1799) "Hong Liangji's Book Incident" reflected the limitations of Hong Liangji under the integrity autocracy，The official governance is also not as good as the same party in the case of peace.，Loss of it is wide。third，Despite punishment of harmony，Jiaqing 14 years of concentrated punishment for corruption，But for the entire Jiaqing dynasty officials，Guan Wenfa summarizes it as a "soft" word，It is manifested bet365 live casino games as law and does not depend on、Law enforcement is not strict，I often admonish the knot in "Nothing as an Example"，There is no realization of the first -effect law of Hong Liangji's hope at all，"Make the officials from governing the people and the livelihood"，Then resolve the broad kernel of Emperor Kangxi，"Transfer Customs"。Jiaqing faces three major dilemma of "soldiers", "rivers" and "official governance"，Jiaqing, who is in the middle of the Qing Dynasty as the "master of Cheng Cheng"，Although there are part of the effort of the governance，It's just a difficult difficulty，Barely blame，Its poor governance is the inevitable result of the accumulation of heavy control systems。

In terms of foreign policy，Guan Wenfa opens the horizon，From the time leading the development direction of the world at that time, the various political and economic trends of Western Europe that successfully transformed in modern transformation，Summary of the Qing Dynasty system and administrative gains and losses。

The article "The Foreign Policy of the Jiaqing Dynasty in the Qing Dynasty" written by Guan Wenfa，Discussion "Policies to the surrounding countries"、After the Policy of Catholicism's preach in China，It also focused on the "foreign trade and prohibition of opium" that influenced the trend of Chinese history later。About foreign trade policy，He explicitly proposed，Based on the self -sufficient natural economy，The Qing Dynasty adhered to conservative and negative trade policies。Since the late Qianlong，Due to the decline in national strength，Internal and external situations are unstable，With "Fangyi" as the purpose，Extra the conservative trade policy。During the Jiaqing period，This conservative trade policy is prominently manifested in，First，Strictly limit the port of business，No illegal expansion。2，Strict limit on the number of export goods。third，Holding the transaction that is convenient for operation。Due to various restrictions and restraints，The foreign trade of the Jiaqing Dynasty is getting worse。Statistics of Guangdong Customs indicates，Jiaqing seventeen years，The import cargo price is more than 12.07 million，Export cargo price of more than 15.1 million two; Jiaqing's imported cargo price in 18 years is 12.63 million，​​Export cargo price of 12.93 million two。Trade surplus is minimal，Trade difference towards the direction of the Qing Dynasty。

Jiaqing is an early resolute bet365 best casino games smoking ban。China Long -term Trade Excellence，With the support of Western colonial forces，Increased the opium by annually in order to trade balance，Qianlong 55 years (1790) reached 4054 boxes。Jiaqing recognizes the opium "the harm of the popular people's hearts"，Except for the five cities of Royal History in the Five Cities，Specialty "Land in Mum and Guangdong，and the governor Fu Guan Duke，Break its source "。Jiaqing set the focus of the opium in Guangdong Province，It has played the purpose of blocking the source to curb the flow。June 22 years of Jiaqing，A US merchant ship was robbed by a US merchant ship in Guangdong，Governor Jiang Youzheng not only executes robbery，and "All the Muds of Mud，Member to go to the gate of Yiguan to burn and destroy，Du Du Disuda "。This is the first time in the history of the Qing Dynasty to destroy opium。Jiaqing's ban on opium is determined，The flood of opium is temporarily curb。

During the Jiaqing years, Portugal、Spain、colonial forces such as the Netherlands have declined，Britain, France, Russia and other countries are rising，But the world is in the era of Britain's domination，Jiaqing's policy on Britain reflects its ability to deal with foreign relations。Qianlong 58 years，Makayana，Trade requirements are not realized。From this，The contradiction between the British and the Qing government in trade，Creed the threat of colonialism，increasingly intensified。Jiaqing lacks the right understanding of the international situation and world affairs，First，Britain of the Atlantic Ocean in the distance，Self -dwelling with the heavenly dynasty。2，Keep more vigilant for the United Kingdom。For the British business，He said，"There are British Geely，It is 谲 谲 谲，For the past few decades，The will of the Food of Food "。Do not allow its cargo warship to cross the warship at will，Keep very vigilant for the United Kingdom。

13 years of Jiaqing、Nineteen years，British soldiers or British speedboats in Macau、Huangpu Port Nourishing，The Qing Dynasty all resolutely expelled。Twenty -one year of Jiaqing，Ameisde Master Hua，Different parties because of their own "etiquette"，The Amesde envoy was sent back to China without seeing Emperor Jiaqing。In short，Jiaqing's foreign policy is the first place for national defense and public security，Trade is limited to a small -scale business area in Guangzhou。

Guan Wenfa on the basis of systematic research on the internal affairs Bet365 app download and diplomacy of Jiaqing's administration，Finally publishing academic monograph "Jiaqing Emperor Biography"，Become a major academic achievement in the field of Qing history research，It has the meaning of filling in the period of research on the transformation period of the Qing Dynasty。Today，Scholars use the Chinese and Western archives to write new monographs (such as "The Cornerstone of the Modern Banking Industry -the Origin of the Guangzhou Thirteenth Elements Guarantee System and the Origin of Bank of deposit Insurance"，China Financial Publishing House 2020 Edition)，Let us know，Times of Jiaqing，Western countries that turn with the British Industrial Revolution，From folk merchant groups to national regime is realizing modern conversion，They will industrial civilization、Overseas trade is combined with modern political systems，It is planning colonial plunder for China。China under the governance of Jiaqing is still under the self -sufficient autocracy and collective rule，Cangles of the two worlds，The failure of the Qing Empire is inevitable。Guan Wenfa's pioneering research，It provides an important academic ladder for us to know more clearly in the Qing Dynasty from the prosperity and decline of China。

　　(Author Unit: School of Finance and Finance, Renmin University of China)