Since the 20th century，In the study of traditional Chinese political thought in the humanities，There are two Western trends of thought that have the greatest influence on Chinese bet with bet365: one is the theory of cultural evolution，Second: Institutional Determinism。The so-called cultural evolution theory，Also known as the theory of historical evolution，Believe that human history throughout the ages has developed from low-level to high-level according to the law of linear evolution；From aristocracy、Monarchy to democracy are the common models for the political development of all nationalities。Ancient Chinese political thought, especially Confucian political thought, did not develop democracy，So it belongs to the pre-modern stage。The so-called institutional determinism，Believes that the focus of all politics is to establish a standardized system，Don’t place your hopes on others。Confucianism values ​​human relations、Government by virtue and appointment of talents，Put the importance of bet with bet365 over institutions，Inverting the relationship between the two，Seriously ignoring the importance of the system。

Under the control of the above two major viewpoints，Research on the history of ancient Chinese political thought often revolves around three arguments，One saying is that bet with bet365 have no civil rights，On the second day, there are bet with bet365 who can’t be cured，Three Days: There is autocracy but no democracy。Of course there is hierarchy but no equality、There is a country but no individual、Several views such as restrictions but no freedom。There are relatively few advocates of the latter three views，The first three views are agreed by most scholars，Considered to be the biggest crux of Chinese political thought for more than two thousand years，The typical representative of his thoughts is Confucianism。Liang Qichao below、Xiao Gongquan、The study of Mou Zongsan’s political thought history is an example，To analyze the above views and the problems they may cause。

"History of Political Thought in Pre-Qin Dynasty" compiled by Liang Qichao in 1922 based on the lecture notes，It can be called one of the earliest works on the history of Chinese political thought written with modern thinking。Many of these views are still outdated today，For example, the analysis of Confucian Tianxiaism (which he calls "true cosmopolitanism" and "supranationalism")，If it is consistent with the relevant discussions that have been popular in recent years。His bet with bet365-centered discussion，The first of its kind in bet with bet365-oriented research。Liang Yiyi opposed the theory that there was no freedom and equality in ancient China，Also pointed out，U.S. President Lincoln summarized politics as "government for the bet with bet365", "government by the bet with bet365" and "government for the bet with bet365" (of the bet with bet365, by the bet with bet365, and for the bet with bet365），Among them, "government is government for the bet with bet365" and "government is for the bet with bet365", which the Chinese bet with bet365 "see very clearly，I believe deeply”，Only "Government comes from the bet with bet365"，That is, "all politics should be implemented by the bet with bet365"，This theory is not recognized in our country。Therefore, China only has “bet with bet365-oriented doctrine without political participation”，This is "the biggest shortcoming of our country's political theory"。This theory can be said to be based on the bet with bet365 after the beginning、Pioneering theory of no civil rights。

However, it seems today，Liang’s theory is also one-sided。It is true that there was no bet with bet365's participation in politics in ancient times，It is said that there was no idea of ​​civil rights in ancient China，And confronting bet with bet365-oriented and civil rights，Not necessarily true。"Shang Shu Gao Tao Mo" has "Afraid of the sky，自民明伟”，"Shang Shu·Tai Shi" has an article "Heaven sees oneself and the bet with bet365 see"，Heaven listens to my bet with bet365”，Seems to imply popular sovereignty；Combined with the article "What the bet with bet365 Want" from "Thai Oath"，Heaven will follow it”，Whether it reminds the bet with bet365 of their power to overthrow tyranny？What’s more，Mencius on the subjects killing Jie and Zhou，It is to punish the "disabled thief" and "a husband"，Instead of "regicide"；Xunzi uses water、The boat is a metaphor for common bet with bet365 and the king，It is said that "water carries the boat"，The water will capsize the boat"，Always popular in later generations；Dong Zhongshu said that "the right way defeats the wrong way，This is the law of heaven”，So "Xia has no way and Yin conquered it，Yin has no way and Zhou attacks it，Zhou had no way but Qin conquered it，Qin was unruly and the Han conquered it"。Since the bet with bet365 have the power to overthrow tyranny，I can’t say it’s not a form of civil rights。Confucianism has never designed a system for bet with bet365 to directly participate in politics，But completely deny that Confucianism has the idea of ​​civil rights，Understanding Confucianism from the perspective of bet with bet365-centered/democracy opposition，Not necessarily fair。

Mr. Xiao Gongquan, first edition in 1945、The book "History of Chinese Political Thought" which has been reprinted many times since then，Famous at home and abroad。This book pays more attention to "historical analysis"，Also presupposes an evolutionary view of history。For example, he divided the history of Chinese political thought into the "creative period" (from Confucius to the unification of Qin)、"The period of inheritance" (Qin and Han Dynasties to Song and Yuan Dynasties)、"Transformation Period" (early Ming Dynasty to late Qing Dynasty)、"Mature period" (after the establishment of the "Three bet with bet365's Principles")，Shows an evolutionary ladder of thought，The "Three bet with bet365's Principles" are the highest stage of China's political and ideological maturity。At the same time，He used the terms “autocracy period”, “feudal period” and “modern period” to correspond to the above periods，To summarize his political thoughts。If saying "feudal period" is a factual judgment，The "authoritarian period" becomes a value judgment。Because we judge from facts，The Qin and Han Dynasties to the late Qing Dynasty were the prefecture and county period，Compared to the previous feudal period，This shows that he regards the monarchy under the county system as autocracy。However，With the Monarchy、Feudalism、Prefecture and county systems refer to specific systems，“Autocracy” does not specifically refer to a certain political system or system，But a possible value evaluation of all systems。So Qian Mu based on the prime minister system in traditional Chinese politics、Admonition system、Imperial examination system、Historical facts such as the system of distinguishing the royal family and foreign dynasties，Oppose the general term “dark autocracy” to describe traditional Chinese politics and thought。

One of Mou Zongsan’s most famous views is that “China used to only have ‘democracy in power’，Without ‘democracy of power’”。"Government democracy" roughly means that Confucian governance thoughts only go inwards，Place your political hopes on "sage kings and wise ministers"。Democracy without political power means that political power is not determined by the bet with bet365，Earned by "conquering the world"。This statement can also be discussed。According to the aforementioned "Shang Shu"、Mencius、Xunzi、Dong Zhongshu’s point of view，The bet with bet365 have the power to overthrow the tyrant；Changing dynasties can also be regarded as the result of the bet with bet365 exercising their power，At least God is doing justice for the bet with bet365，It may not contain the spirit of bet with bet365’s sovereignty。

Mou Zongsan’s point of view actually presupposes democracy/autocracy、Dichotomous thinking of bet with bet365-oriented/civil rights。Actually，As far as democracy refers to a political system (the same as feudalism)，Autocracy does not specifically refer to a certain political system，Only refers to the way of governance，It is also problematic to compare democracy with autocracy。It’s just that Chinese bet with bet365 have long been accustomed to viewing democracy as a standard of value，Therefore, all non-democratic regimes can be regarded as autocracy。Also，Liang Qichao、Xiao Gongquan、Mou Zongsan’s thinking is divided into the rule of man and the rule of law，The expression is different。Liang Qichao classified Legalism into "legalism"，Refusing Mohist politics with “rule by man”。Xiao Gongquan pointed out，One of the biggest flaws in traditional Chinese political thought is the failure to recognize "respect for the law、Emphasis on system，Don’t rely solely on human ethics and morality to govern”。“Respect the law、Emphasis on system” seems to refer to the rule of law，“Relying on human ethics and morality for governance” seems to refer to human governance。Mou Zongsan "has a way of governing" in ancient China、The theory of "no political principles"，Almost a political determinism，It can also be said to be a type of institutional determinism；What he calls the "parallel pattern" and the "reasonable spirit of decomposition"，Also based on the dichotomy of rule of law/rule of man，Gu Mou said，Ancient Chinese political thought “‘bet with bet365’s survival policy’”，bet with bet365 die and politics cease’，Cannot establish the true rule of law”。However，As Liang Qichao discovered，The rule of etiquette advocated by Confucianism for thousands of years cannot simply be called the rule of man。It is understandable to understand "selecting talents and capable bet with bet365" and "ruling the country by virtue" as governing by bet with bet365，It may not be accurate to understand rule by ritual as rule by man。More and more scholars point out，The developed etiquette system in ancient China is close to or similar to the "customary law" of the West。Institutional economics with great influence in the modern West，Understand the system insofar as objections are limited to hard laws or written regulations，And believe that etiquette is even more important than rigid institutional regulations，Of course it is also an important part of the system。There are so many rituals, music and rules and regulations in Chinese dynasties，If we simply start from the dichotomy of rule of law/rule of man，It is said that in ancient China only bet with bet365 ruled、Is there a problem if there is no rule of law？

Let’s take a look at the cultural evolution theory that had a profound influence on modern Chinese scholars。The influence of this theory in the West is mainly limited to the 18th and 19th centuries，By the beginning of the 20th century, it had already declined under the attacks of Boas and others。But its influence on the Chinese bet with bet365 only began in the 20th century，This has led many Chinese to simply use progress/backwardness to judge the ancient thoughts，But cannot see the problems of multiple modernities corresponding to the diversity of civilizations。Qian Mu believes that modern Western politics is based on the government being hostile to the bet with bet365、Featured by the struggle between political parties and political parties，The traditional Chinese politics focuses on "selecting talents and abilities" and "setting up officials and dividing their duties"，His emphasis on local particularity in the comparison between China and the West，Similar to today’s thoughts on multiple modernities。

　2000，The first winter issue of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences magazine "Daedalus" published a special issue on "Multiple Modernities"，Research "multiple modernities" as a focus topic of global significance。Proposed by relevant scholars，Modernity is not a transcendent existence beyond specific history and space，It’s impossible to understand its true meaning once it is separated from the specific context。For example, someone discovered，Europe、North America、Japan、The colonial path to modernity was different。Du Weiming advocates that only by transcending tradition/modernity、Western/Non-Western、Global/local dichotomous thinking，In order to truly understand modernity。From the perspective of multiple modernities，The theory of cultural evolution and institutional determinism that have dominated the Chinese bet with bet365 since the 20th century，And the corresponding civil rights/civil rights、Rule of man/rule of law、Democracy/Autocracy Dichotomous Thinking，Maybe worth reflecting on。Research on traditional political thought must get out of the “modern” trap，Only in order to break through the shackles of Western-centrism。

　(The author is a professor in the Department of bet with bet365, Tsinghua University)