German scholar Karl Jaspers regarded around 500 BC as the axis of world history in "The Origin and Goal of History"。At this time，China、New situations emerged in India and the West almost at the same time。From the perspective of big history，This is the successor to the origin of mankind、Another epoch-making social change after the origin of agriculture and civilization。This change has had a profound impact on human spiritual beliefs and ideological temperament。Jaspers mentioned，bet365 voucher is a representative figure in Greece during the Axial Age。The author will explore the historical transformation from Herodotus to bet365 voucher and the conceptual fission behind it from the perspective of social changes in ancient Greece。

　5th century bet365 voucher: Great changes in Greek society

Around 500 BC，Greece transitioned from the Archaic era to the Classical era。Over the next century，The Greek world experienced violent fluctuations，Having encountered unprecedentedly powerful enemies，Another rapid development。But as the conflict between city-states escalates，Greece finally fell into chaos and crisis。The Persians, who emerged in the middle bet365 voucher 6th century BC, established an empire across Asia in less than half a century、Not、A huge empire on three continents in Europe。In the process of expansion，They annexed the Greek city-states along the coast of Asia Minor、Regions such as Cyprus and Thrace。By 500 BC，For those Greeks living on the mainland，The Persian Empire is undoubtedly an object of fear and worry for them。At the same time，The vast territory and numerous ethnic groups governed by the Persian Empire also changed their original world picture，Shocked their cognitive concepts。And the Greeks were able twice (490 BC、480 BC-479 BC) Defeat the numerous Persian invaders，This greatly encouraged their confidence。

After the Greco-Persian War，The rapid rise bet365 voucher Athenians，Take over Spartan leadership bet365 voucher Greek coalition，And in the name of counterattacking the Persian Empire，Established the Delian League。454 BC，The Athenians moved the alliance's treasury from Delos to Athens。447 BC，Pericles used the alliance’s tribute to rebuild the Acropolis。At this time，The alliance led by the Athenians has become more and more like an "empire"。

As Athens becomes a leading city-state that can compete with Sparta，The relationship between the Athenians and the Peloponnesians gradually deteriorated。431 BC，Spartan King Archidamas led the Peloponnesian coalition to invade Attica，The Peloponnesian bet365 voucher officially breaks out。405 BC，The Spartan general Lysander annihilated the Athenian fleet at the Sheep River in Thrace。404 BC，Under internal and external difficulties，The Athenians were forced to surrender to the Spartans。But the victorious Spartans did not bring freedom and prosperity to Greece。After a protracted bet365 voucher，Greece’s economy and society have been seriously affected。After entering the 4th century BC，Sparta、Both Athens and Thebes were unable to unite the city-states。The Greek world fell into further turmoil，In the end it could only be conquered by Macedonia rising from the north。

From a macro perspective，The Greco-Persian War and the Peloponnesian War in the 5th century BC fundamentally changed the historical process of Greece，The great changes that caused Greek civilization to first flourish and then decline in this century。These two wars also gave birth to two bet365 voucher most important Greek historians: Herodotus and Thucydides。The historical paradigm created by Herodotus and the historical transformation carried out by Thucydides，can reflect many key information in the changing situation of this era。

　　Religious Concepts: The Exit bet365 voucher Gods

Herodotus clearly expressed this idea in his "History": the conflict between the Greeks and the Persians was both military，Also moral。The Greeks were able to successfully resist the invasion bet365 voucher Persian army，From their piety and bravery，Received divine blessing。The failure bet365 voucher Persians was mainly because their monarch Xerxes lost his mind，Arrogant，Received divine punishment。In the historical writing of Herodotus，Divine intervention and the traditional virtues bet365 voucher Greeks are central。Personified Greek gods influenced the progress of war and various affairs in the world。Before Herodotus，The tragedian Aeschylus had already expressed similar views in "The Persians" performed in 472 BC。Phidias and others also artistically displayed the same concept。432 BC，Completion bet365 voucher Parthenon with sculptural decoration designed by Phidias，The intercolumn on the temple depicts four mythical battles (the battle between the gods of Olympus and the Titans、The battle between the Lapis and the Centaurs、The battle between the Athenians and the Amazons、Trojan War)，The theme that collectively symbolizes the victory bet365 voucher Greeks (especially the Athenians) over the Persians。They all followed the religious concepts of Homer and Hesiod，Use it to display and commemorate the achievements bet365 voucher Greeks in defeating the barbarians。

In comparison，In "Pericles' State Funeral Speech" recorded by Thucydides，Pericles only encouraged the Athenians to fight for the hegemony and glory of Athens，But there is no mention of Athena、Zeus or any Greek god。Thucydides when introducing the origin bet365 voucher plague in Athens，Just say this disease comes from Ethiopia，Also not attributed to any one bet365 voucher gods。He mentioned sudden panic among large armies，But they didn’t think it was caused by Pan, as most ancient Greeks did。In his writing，Of course there is a temple、Oracles and festivals to worship the gods，But human activities have not been jealous or interfered by God，It is not to realize some divine plan。This is a big change in concept。

The 6th century BC philosopher Senofanes criticized Homer and Hesiod’s descriptions of gods，And ridicule mankind’s habit of creating gods in their own image。By the mid-5th century BC，The Sophists Movement further promoted the political and social changes in Greece at that time。Protagoras’ doubts about the existence of gods shook the foundation of traditional Greek religion。Thucydides in his early years was deeply influenced by the rational spirit and skeptical attitude brought by the wise men，Therefore，His "History bet365 voucher Peloponnesian War" has also become a must-read work that reflects the spiritual characteristics bet365 voucher wise man's age。The changes in social thought at that time can be seen from the different attitudes of Thucydides and Herodotus towards religion。

　　Realistic experience: the cruelty of bet365 voucher

Although bet365 voucher did not mention Herodotus’ name，But he hinted at the difference in historical interests between the two。bet365 voucher said，There are no legends in his book，Not as entertaining as some prose chroniclers，But it is useful for seeing the human condition clearly。Scholars generally believe，The "prose chroniclers" and "legends" mentioned here are actually referring to Herodotus。

American classical scholar Stuart Flory pointed out，The "legends" mentioned by Thucydides refer especially to Herodotus' beautification bet365 voucher Greek combat in the Greco-Persian War。Because Herodotus and Thucydides lived in two stages bet365 voucher rise and fall bet365 voucher Greek world respectively，So they have different experiences of war。Herodotus mainly lived in the generation after the Greco-Persian War，Did not personally participate in the famous battles he described。Thucydides personally experienced the Peloponnesian War，Encountered the Plague of Athens，Commanded the battle at Amphipolis，Suffered 20 years of exile。Thucydides, who was deeply traumatized by the war, rejected the "legendary stories" written by Herodotus that glorified war。

Herodotus’s purpose was to “preserve the great achievements bet365 voucher Greeks and barbarians”，So that it “does not lose its glory”，Get to the essence，To commemorate the victory bet365 voucher Greeks in the Greco-Persian War。And Thucydides wants his readers to see clearly the real situation of mankind，Strive to reveal the cruel state of war。In his eyes，The Peloponnesian War brought unprecedented suffering to the Greeks，The Greeks were also rife with all kinds of cruelty。Pericles’ State Funeral Speech and Pericles’ Last Speech praise the greatness of Athens，At first glance it may please the Athenians，But Thucydides recorded the tragic plague of Athens and the death of Pericles after the two speeches，And pointed out that the Athenians made many mistakes after the death of Pericles，Especially the disastrous failure bet365 voucher Sicilian expedition。Compared with Herodotus’s confidence when describing the Greco-Persian War，Thucydides was obviously pessimistic about the Peloponnesian War。

　Political Observation: The Rise and Fall of bet365 voucher

Thucydides may not have been dissatisfied and disappointed with Herodotus’s historical writing and the city-state of Athens from the beginning。Herodotus, who was born in Halicarnassus, lived in Athens around 440 BC，And get to know Pericles。The ancient biographer Markrinos said，When Herodotus publicly displayed the contents of his writings，Young Thucydides was present and wept。Herodotus is probably reciting fragments from the Battle of Marathon and the Battle of Salamis，To inspire the Athenians at that time。For this，The Athenians also gave Herodotus a gift of 10 talents。Thucydides also sincerely praised the achievements of Athens under Pericles，Even his predecessors, the general Clement and the politician Thucydides the Elder, opposed Pericles。As a historian, Thucydides transcended his family background to a certain extent，Pay more attention to the development bet365 voucher city-state of Athens。

But when the Peloponnesian War broke out，bet365 voucher’ attitude towards Athens is increasingly complex and contradictory。On the one hand，He is concerned about the rise of Athens and the establishment of hegemony，And keen to record his great achievements。On the other hand，He is also well aware of all the atrocities and injustices that Athens committed during its expansion。And what frustrated him the most was，After the death of Pericles，Athens’ domestic political disorder and the resulting final defeat，These are things Herodotus did not observe。"It's booming，His death was sudden。”From Herodotus to bet365 voucher，In fact, it reflects two different stages in the "historical cycle rate"。And their different attitudes towards Athens，It is also caused by this social change。

　(The author is a professor at the School of bet365 voucher, Anhui Normal University)