New population theory thinks，The economic and social changes in the medieval century are mainly caused by the periodic changes of population and resources。Before the Black Death，The contradiction between population and resources is serious，Farmers' living standards deteriorated; after black death，Population reduction，Farmers' life naturally improves。The above view does not conform to the actual practice。Research on commercialization theory and social transformation since the late night refute the point of view of the new population theory，regarded British history since the mid -Middle Ages as urbanization、Monetization、The process of professionalism and structural transformation，A new medium -century -driven in institutional innovation，Population、Resources and black death are no longer regarded as the main driving force for the development of the middle and late periods of the medieval century。

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The British population has gone through rapid growth in the middle of the Middle Ages。1086，The total population is about 1.75 million to 2.25 million。Based on the first tax report of the 1377, it is estimated to be estimated，Based on the first tax report of the 1377, it is estimated to be estimated。Based on this，Adding about 50%of the mortality caused by black death，The total population of 1347 before the black death was 5 million -6 million people，It has increased almost twice from 1086。So，Can the growth population get sufficient necessity? To answer this question，It must be examined the living standards of farmers before the black death。The representative of the new population theory Perstein believes，The 13th century was the fastest period of population growth in the middle of the Middle Ages，The living standards of farmers are large in different living standards。Worry -free life of wealthy farmers，But medium farmers and small land holders are affected by varying degrees。Middle farmers with a half -Vegrt (about 20 acres) of land，In normal times, you can ensure that the five -mouth home gets about 2000 calories per day，Only to maintain basic life。and small land holders have three or five acres of land，It is not enough to rely on land revenue to make a living，Must work for 250 days a year to subsidize households。but，The work of agricultural employment is always seasonal or temporary，Therefore, small land holders cannot enter，Live in "poverty and hunger"。

Visible，The deterioration of living standards in the mid -century in the new population theory does not refer to all farmers，Small land holders are the dispute focus of whether the living standards of British farmers worsen in the 13th century。Actually，The life of a long -term hired employment can be obtained by the basic guarantee。The full -time servant of the lord's self -operated site obtains 36 -panel ear (equivalent to 4.5 Quot) Bet365 app download a year，You can provide them with 5 pounds of bread every day。Middle Ages British farmers' families per capita consumer food per capita is usually 1 Quot，A peasant family holding 20 acres of land consumes 6 Quota grains a year (2 of them are used to make wheat wine)。So，The grain salary of the servant of the manor can completely meet the consumption of their family rations。other，A generation of people before black death，The actual salary or salary purchasing power of the employee also improves to a certain extent。Early 13th century，The agricultural employee of Bishop of Winchester Real Estate requires 24-26 working units for purchasing "consumer goods shopping baskets"，1270-1330 increased to 27-36，Black Death decreased to 22-23 before the death。This means，Before the Black Death，The number of job units paid for employment to obtain a necessity of life is decreasing，The living standards tend to improve。

Generally speaking，Mid -Middle Ages，British farmers live in the normal years of Rogers's "rough but rich" life。It is true，The living standards of each level are different。Before the Black Death，Farmers' diet structure is mainly bread and wheat porridge，Wealthy farmers can often drink wheat wine (medieval beer)，and medium farmers and employees can only drink it when they are conditional。The main source of animal protein is dairy products、Beef and meat，Only wealthy farmers can consume a lot。Farmers also eat fish，But many farmers only eat bread during the fasting day、Cheese、Onion and oatmeal porridge。other，The vegetable garden of the farmer's house provides onions、Leek、Garlic、Roll cabbage、Apple and Pear, etc.，The wasteland around the village can hunt、fishing and collection。These foods can be farmers' vitamins and proteins。but but，Due to the fierce competition in labor，Name that wages are rising slowly，Food prices rose rapidly，Improvement of employment living standards is slower than the middle and upper level farmers。

Before the Black Death，The living level of the elderly has gained social security。The habit of serfs can enjoy a variety of rights。and Widow Gadion、Inheritance rights and buying and selling rights，Agricultural rights are also a kind of right to keep the land，New holders must perform this obligation whether or not relatives or not。Elderly and weak serfs can hand over the land to the family members of the year, and even those who have no relatives。Signing for maintenance agreement is a universal pension method for elderly farmers，Supervision and execution by the Manor Court。The specific treatment of retired farmers shall prevail as a maintenance agreement，Standard height is related to population pressure，But it mainly depends on how much the retirement transfer property (mainly the land)。Most support agreements can provide 9-16 puppet ear meter grains for a retired farmer，The intermediate value is 12 -pyrite (equivalent to 1.5 Quot)。These grains are enough to provide about 1.5 pounds or 1.75 pounds of bread per day。Modern famine relief Bet365 app download plan confirms that 1 pound of grains per person is enough to maintain life。1.75 pounds can provide 2000 calories，Let the retirees have enough energy to engage in minor labor，Young people who undertake physical labor need about 2.25 pounds of bread every day。

There are reasons to say，At least one generation of people before the black death，The living standards of British farmers are already improving，Nutrition and lack of resistance are not common。

　　Social transformation and living standards generally increase after black death

For a long time，Black Death is given the meaning of epoch -making，It seems that historical changes are a natural process，All countries。Actually，Most European countries have not occurred after the black death，Only Britain is an exception。

One，Black Death Promote the Britain's abandonment of the Middle Ages。According to the population theory of Marsas，Rich living information can increase fertility rate，Otherwise, reduce the fertility rate，The dynamic relationship between this population and resources presents a cyclical cycle。Black Death caused half of the British population to die，The population has further declined in the past two centuries。The British population is restored to the level before the death of the dark，Not in the Middle Ages，Not in the 16th century，but after the industrial revolution。According to Hedo estimation，In 1400, there were only 2 million to 2.5 million people in the United Kingdom，It will not increase much in the future，It is still the case in 1500。until before the Industrial Revolution，The British population has not reached the peak of the Middle Ages 6 million people。After the Industrial Revolution，The British population starts to grow rapidly。

Obviously，The British population does not recover or even surpass the level of black death like other European countries in the 19th century。Dell thinks，1348 until 1540，The main reason for the sluggish population in the UK is not the high mortality caused by plague，but caused by low birth rate。Low birth rates originated from young people from all levels of urban and rural areas. Most of them go out to do "life cycle servant"，So their average first marriage age is delayed from 22 to 26。Late marriage shorten the birth of women，A decrease in the number of children，As a result, the birth rate of the population is lower。other，Ceremony occupies a large proportion，It is also one of the reasons that lead to a lower population。After black death，The institutional change of the "life cycle servant" widely implemented among young people，helps late marriage and childbirth and reduce the birth rate of population，Tools that suppress the population，Promoting the transformation of the Middle Ages' Population Model。

Its two，Black Death has accelerated the demise of the serf in a detouring manner。British serf system began to be late，Earlier for Destin，Black Death has played an important role in the disintegration of accelerated serf system。The main symbol of the British serf system is the rental tax donation of labor land rent and Bet365 lotto review various slavery。Actually，As early as the 13th century，Most serf's labor land rent has been converted into currency land rent，Concentrated lords' self -employed sites mainly rely on manor full -time servants and temporary employment cultivation。After black death，Labor shortage，Rising salary of employment workers，Lord attempts to restore the serf's labor land rent，Lead the so -called "feudal reaction"。1381，British peasant uprising proposes to abolish the rent of labor land。Despite the suppression of the uprising，But the labor system was abolished after 10 years。15th Century，With a large amount of rental with the self -operated place，Lord completely withdrew from the production field。At the same time，More and more serfs use currency to buy slave service tax，Get personal freedom，Snules are fame and die。Visible，Black Death not only does not naturally lead to the demise of serfs，Even strengthening the labor system in a short time。But，The peasant uprising prevented the "feudal reaction" initiated by the lord，It played a decisive role on abolishing the serf system。and abolition of French and German serfs，Wait until the French Revolution and Prussia Reform。

Due to the farewell to the Middle Ages and Nuns,，Farmers' lives after black death are generally improved。For employees，The population decreases sharply after the black death，Labor competition decreases，Low food price，Help to improve actual salary。but，Names of wage growth have been limited，1349 "Employment Legal Legal" attempts to freeze the salary at the level before the black death。1351-1500，The British Parliament passed 6 related laws，But did not achieve the expected effect in the struggle of the employment。Under the dual action of rising wages and decline in food prices，The late Middle Ages, especially the 15th century，The actual salary of agricultural employees and construction workers is growing rapidly。In the chaotic period of frequent epidemic in the 1950s and 1960s，Agricultural employees and construction workers to buy consumer goods shopping baskets need to spend to increase to 24.5 days and 32.5 days。In the 1970s, I dropped，The salary of agricultural employees and construction workers has increased rapidly。Agricultural employees fell to 19 in the 1970s，The first 10 years of the 15th century were 16，The 1940s were 12。Construction workers need 27 working units to buy consumer goods shopping baskets in the 1970s，In the first 10 years and 1940s of the 15th century, it was reduced to 21 and 14 respectively。In the 15th century, it was hailed by Rogers as the "Golden Age" of employees，The leading position of their actual salary has been maintained until 1880。

The living standards of farmers in the late Middle Ages have generally improved significantly，It is very significant in the diet structure。In the second half of the 14th century and 15th century，Three outstanding changes in the diet structure of farmers: First, the increase in wheat consumption，In the salary of the servants of the manor，The proportion of wheat rises，More families have their own bread furnaces; the second is that farmers Bet365 lotto review can drink wheat wine frequently，Many villages' wheat tavern is established under the permission of the lord; the third is that they can eat more meat，Rural butcher business is booming。In other words，The late Middle Ages，British farmers bid farewell to the economy，Live of food and clothing。

　　15-16 century British living standards ranked first in Western Europe

15-16 century，The living standards of the British have surpassed France and Italy，British who have lived in mainland Europe for a long time have made a detailed description of this。Henry VI. Sir Fatisqiu compared the British clothing and food consumption with France.，Praise ordinary people in the UK can enjoy more meat、Alcohol and clothing and other necessities。During the Rose War，Fatisqiu has followed the British royal family for eight years of exile in France，I have a deep understanding of the life there。He compared the advantages and disadvantages of the British and French political system，It is pointed out that the limited monarchy of the UK has enabled the British to gain good law and good governance，avoiding storms。The result is，The British become more generous，With sufficient gold and silver and survival necessities。They do not drink white water except beer，Taste a variety of fish treasure，Wear a fine wool sweater from head to toe，There are rich bedding at home，There are various wool fabrics，They have a wide variety of utensils and agricultural tools，Enjoy a peaceful and rich life。and France implemented the absolute monarchy at the same time，Evil law harsh politics，The people live in poverty。Fortisqiu does not think that the rich and free land described in the middle of the 15th century is a new thing，He believes that Britain is different in ancient times，The reason is multi -faceted，Including excellent natural conditions、Limited monarchy、Ordinary Law, etc.。

The London Bishop John Elmer in the Elizabeth era was exiled to Europe，I have lived abroad for ten years。During this period, he visited France and Germany，and collected Italian information，British、Italy、Decision in Germany。He thinks，The so -called wealth of Italian farmers，But use Mai as a Chinese service，Diet and cost consumption all pursue cheap。Every day，The Italians sell poultry and eggs，In exchange for food oil，It is used to prepare wild vegetable salad，Maintain a week of consumption，Unable to buy beef, sheep, fish and fish like British。The situation in Germany is better than Italy，However, German people eat more roots than eating meat。He reminds，Push yourself and others，The British should feel very lucky。Europeans eat wild vegetables、root block，British eat cattle and sheep、butter、cheese and poultry eggs; mainlanders drink white water every day，The British drink beer smoothly; the mainlanders buy back the wild vegetable salad from the market，The British bring back the flesh，Full in the pocket;，The British are as big as possible; the mainlanders pay taxes until bones are as thin as firewood，The British bet365 best casino games can store storage for future generations。He will blame the main reason for the differences in the livelihood of the United Kingdom and the European continent on the latter to implement the absolute monarchy，and remind the British who implement a limited monarchy to strictly prevent it。

Records from foreigners from the same time also indicate，Ordinary people in the UK surpass Italy in terms of clothing, food, housing and transportation、European countries such as the Netherlands and Germany。1497，The Venice Ambassador to the UK, Andreia Trevisano, wrote a report entitled "England Island" (or "England Classics")。Although Britain has experienced a century -old war and rose war，Economy and society have been greatly damaged，But he is still deeply moved by England's wealth: the wealth of England，No country in Europe can not look at its item。He thinks，The wealth of the United Kingdom should be attributed to the extreme fertile soil、Sales of precious metal tin、Extraordinary yield of wool。Both silver disc，England's wealth is quite wide，The owner of the small inn，Both silver disc、Silver Cup，People who do not have this thing are regarded as unnamed rats。Even the British during the war，Even if the fierce fighting is，Also pursue the fast、Enjoy all kinds of Yile。Currency and trade spread throughout the United Kingdom，Ordinary people may be devoted to trade，or operating fisheries，or engaged in the navigation industry。They are diligent in business，Even at the expense of borrowing loans。

Elizabeth I era，Historians from Antwerp, the Netherlands, and the low -place country's business consul in London, Emmanuel Vanmeter, live in London。He published a comment after traveling to England and Ireland，The British enjoy a lot of meat，Elegant clothes、Light and expensive，But they like the new and hate the old、Pursuing strange costumes，Fashion changes every year，Men and women are all。England people pay attention to dressing，You need to wear the best clothes when you ride or travel，This is exactly the opposite of the habits of other nations。He believes，England's wealth comes from Shepherd，even more than hard work。They do not have to work hard like other ethnic groups，Not as diligent and frugal as Dutch or French，They spend most of the floating lives in laziness。They raised a lot of lazy employees，But unwilling to farm hard farmland。

1990s，Judge and Lawyer Paul Henzna, a jurist at Brandenburg, Germany, visit England，Praise the richness of the UK。He sees the fruit on the earth、Niu Yang Group，Residents have developed a full day of food、The habit of no farming，One -third of the land has not been cultivated，Only used for grazing。Sheep becomes the main wealth of residents，Become a veritable "Gold Wool" source，The wealthy businessman who came to the UK to buy this product with money。He thinks，Compared with the same person as France，Consumption bread in English residents is very small、More consumer meat，And like to add a lot of sugar to the drink。Bet365 lotto review Even more，Flower blankets on their beds，Even the farmer is no exception。Their houses are usually two floors，Houses equipped with glass windows are common here。other，Another German Henry Mest also said in a visit to Britain，I don’t force you，But I want to say，Although England employees are better than France、Eat better、Living better，But it is easier to work。You only need to consider the higher salary of Agricultural employment in England、Rich diet，Therefore, it is more powerful and enthusiastic to complete your work，You will not doubt what you say to me。

In short，For the past exaggerated population、Resources and Black Death's decisive view of the decisive role of the economic and social development of the United Kingdom are inaccurate。Actually，If there is no institutional innovation，They will not bring a substantial impact on economic and social changes，This is the case in the European continent。The improvement of the living standards of British farmers in the Middle Ages is not achieved overnight、Synchronous，Instead, it shows obvious phase and characteristics from high to low。The starting point of the improvement occurs before the black death，Farmers' diet has been initially improved，Social Security for Pension，The degree of improvement of employment life is not as good as middle and upper level farmers。After black death，The United Kingdom took the lead in giving up the Middle Ages' Population Study Model and Serve，Adhere to the limited monarchy government。The innovation of these systems promoted and guaranteed the continuous improvement of farmers' living standards。Improving the living standards of Farmers in England，Based on the growth of labor productivity and actual wages，completely get rid of the internal currency of the traditional society。This change is irreversible and sustainable，preliminary characteristics and quality of modern economic growth。

　(The author is a professor at the School of History of Renmin University of China、Vice President of the World Ancient Medieval History Research Association of the World)